RURAL  TEXT- BO  OK 
SERIES 


SOUTHERN 
FIELD 
CROPS 


L.  H.  BAILEY 


.DUGGAR 


GIFT  OF 


TTbe  IRural  UeiWBoofe  Series 

EDITED  BY  L.  H.  BAILEY 


SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK    •    EOSTON   •    CHICAGO 
SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &   CO.,  LIMITED 

LONDON   •    BOMBAY   •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  LTD. 

TORONTO 


SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 

(EXCLUSIVE  OF  FORAGE  PLANTS) 


BY 

JOHN   FREDERICK   DUGGAR 

// 

DIRECTOR    OP    THE    ALABAMA    AGRICULTURAL,    EXPERIMENT    STATION 

AM)    PROFESSOR    OF    AGRICULTURE    IN    THE    ALABAMA 

POLYTECHNIC    INSTITUTE 


gork 

THE  MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1919 

All  rights  reserved 


f 

''    AGRIC. 


COPYRIGHT,  1911, 
BY   THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  April,  1911      Reprinted 
September,  1911  ;  November,  1912;  September,  1913',  September 
1914;  April,  1915;   September,  November,  1916. 


I* 


J.  S.  Cashing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


MY   PARENTS 

DR.   REUBEN   HENRY  DUGGAR 

AND 

MARGARET  LOUISA  (MINGE)  DUGGAR 

THIS    BOOK 

IS    AFFECTIONATELY   INSCRIBED 

AS    A    SLIGHT    TOKEN    OF    APPRECIATION    OF 

THEIR    HIGH    IDEALS    AND    CAREFUL 

PARENTAL    TRAINING 


^•54843 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE 

THERE  are  many  types  of  text-books  in  agriculture. 
Three  types  have  now  found  their  places  in  The  Rural 
Text-Book  Series :  One  type,  represented  by  Warren's 
"Elements  of  Agriculture,-"7  expounds  the  general  basis 
and  practice  of  the  agricultural  pursuit;  another  type, 
represented  in  Lyon  and  Fippin's  "  Principles  of  Soil  Man- 
agement," presents  in  detail  one  of  the  large  fundamental 
subjects;  and  another  type,  represented  in  the  present 
volume,  explains  the  reasons  and  practices  underlying  the 
raising  of  particular  crops. 

These  three  honest  books  also  represent  three  ranges  of 
presentation :  the  Warren,  a  high  school  method ;  the  Lyon 
and  Fippin,  a  distinctly  college  method;  and  the  Duggar, 
an  intermediate  method,  designed  for  both  advanced  high 
school  and  college. 

A  book  may  be  adapted  at  the  same  time  to  college  work 
and  to  reading  and  reference  by  the  best  farmers.  The 
practicing  farmer  is  increasingly  requesting  books  that  give 
him  real  reasons  and  real  facts.  Text-books  will  increase 
in  use  among  farmers,  not  only  among  those  farmers  who 
have  had  college  instruction,  but  also  with  those  who  have 
come  to  their  work  by  other  routes,  but  who  desire  to  proceed 
substantially.  These  text-books  open  new  fields  of  observa- 
tion. How  many  farmers  really  know  how  the  roots  of  the 
wheat  plant  look,  or  what  is  their  mode  of  growth,  or  how 
these  roots  compare  with  those  of  oats  ?  How  many  know 

vii 


Vlll  EDITOR* S  PREFACE 

the  form  and  features  in  detail  of  the  leaves  of  wheat  and 
barley  and  oats  and  rye?  And  yet  all  good  farming  rests 
on  good  observation,  and  on  sound  reasoning  from  the  facts 
and  phenomena  that  one  observes. 

I  have  been  struck  with  the  suggestions  for  original  and 
painstaking  observation  that  the  pages  of  this  book  contain. 
It  presents  a  type  of  teaching  method  that  was  well  put 
in  book  form  by  Hunt  in  his  "Cereals  in  America," — the 
method  that  sends  the  learner  directly  to  the  plant  in  the 
field,  to  make  careful  observation  from  tip  of  root  to  tip  of 
top.  Most  farmers  do  not  even  yet  really  know  the  plants 
that  they  till.  This  volume  by  Duggar  will  discover  his 
cotton  and  his  cane  to  many  a  man  who  long  has  grown 
them,  but  who  has  known  them  not.  These  makers  of 
observation  text-books,  that  present  the  crops  and  the 
animals  in  their  real  and  living  details,  will  s-et  going  a 
great  quiet  movement  to  examine  minutely  the  conditions 
of  agricultural  failure  and  success. 

L.  H.  BAILEY. 


AUTHOR'S  SUGGESTIONS   TO   TEACHERS 
AND   ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

THIS  book  has  been  prepared  to  fill  the  needs  of  two 
classes  of  individuals,  —  students  desiring  a  full  and  practi- 
cal, yet  logical  and  pedagogical  treatment  of  the  staple  crops 
of  the  South,  and  farmers  seeking  a  simple  presentation  of 
the  scientific  principles  underlying  agriculture,  together  with 
a  condensed  statement  of  the  results  of  recent  experiments 
and  experience. 

Scientific  terms  have  been  excluded,  except  when  de- 
manded by  accuracy  and  clearness,  so  that  farmers  having 
no  training  in  the  use  of  such  terms  may  be  able  to  read  the 
volume  understandingly.  The  meaning  of  every  unfamiliar 
term  may  be  found  in  the  glossary.  Farmers  will  usually 
omit  the  reading  of  the  Exercises  except  when  pursuing  a 
course  of  instruction,  as  in  some  study-center,  or  short- 
course,  or  correspondence-course. 

As  a  text-book,  this  volume  is  intended  especially  to  serve 
for  classes  in  high-schools  and  normal  schools.  It  is  also  in- 
tended to  constitute  an  outline  of  the  subject  for  college  use. 
In  high-school  classes,  it  is  expected  that  the  teacher  will 
direct  the  students  to  omit  all  the  matter  printed  in  small 
type,  all  technical  names  in  parentheses,  and  such  of  the 
exercises  as  deal  with  crops  of  which  specimens  cannot  be 


found  in  the  neighborhood. 


IX 


x    AUTHOR'S  PREFACE  AND  ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

For  high-school  use,  the  matter  may  be  further  abridged 
by  the  omission  of  the  study  of  those  particular  crops  that 
are  unsuited  to  the  locality. 

College  students  are  expected  to  prepare  all  the  matter 
in  this  book,  including  that  in  fine  print,  and  all  Exercises. 
Their  instructors  will  probably  assign  additional  work  on 
the  crops  of  chief  interest  to  the  locality.  These  additions 
will  usually  take  the  form  of  supplementary  lectures  and 
of  collateral  reading  selected  from  the  literature  cited  under 
each  crop. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  point  out  that  the  use  of  a  text- 
book to  afford  at  least  the  outline  of  the  subject-matter  on 
crops  will  enable  the  student  to  cover  much  more  ground 
than  would  be  possible  if  he  relied  exclusively  on  lecture 
notes.  The  use  of  a  text-book  is  also  advantageous  to  the 
instructor,  since  it  permits  him  to  devote  a  larger  proportion 
of  his  time  to  supplementary  lectures,  which  will  direct  in- 
creased attention  to  local  problems  and  practices,  suggest 
methods  of  agricultural  investigation,  and  discuss  the  most 
effective  methods  of  teaching  the  subject  of  agriculture. 

The  author  desires  to  express  his  thanks  to  the  numerous 
friends  who  have  assisted  him  in  this  work,  and  especially  to 
the  following :  To  Messrs.  C.  A.  Cauthen,  H.  P.  Agee,  W.  K. 
Dodson,  J.  N.  Harper,  and  C.  E.  Ball  for  reading  the  manu- 
script of  certain  chapters;  and  to  Dr.  L.  H.  Bailey  for 
editorial  work  and  for  the  use  of  certain  illustrations  from 
his  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture. 

Grateful  acknowledgment  is  made  to  Dr.  W.  E.  Hines  for 
a  number  of  photographs  of  insects;  to  Professor  L.  N. 
Duncan  for  making  the  photographs  of  corn  ears ;  and  to 
Miss  C.  M.  Cook,  who  made  most  of  the  drawings  prepared 
especially  for  this  book.  In  the  List  of  Illustrations  credit 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE  AND  ACKNOWLEDGMENTS   xi 

is  given  in  detail  to  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
and  to  those  Experiment  Stations  that  contributed  photo- 
graphs for  this  volume. 

J.  F.  DUGGAR. 

AUBURN,  ALABAMA, 
January  2,  1911. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 

PAGES 

OATS  —  Avena  sativa     .        ...        .        .        .      ;  •        •  1-31 

Structure,  1  ;  Varieties,  C  ;  Climate,  Soils,  and  Fertilizers, 
13 ;  Cultural  Methods,  16 ;  Enemies,  23 ;  Laboratory  Exer- 
cises, 29  ;  Literature,  31. 

CHAPTER  II 

WHEAT — Triticum  sativum          .        .        ...        .          32-67 

Structure  and  Composition,  32;  Species  and  Varieties, 
40 ;  Soils,  Rotation,  and  Fertilizers,  45  ;  Preparation  and 
Sowing,  50 ;  Harvesting,  58 ;  Enemies,  59 ;  Laboratory  Ex- 
ercises, 64 ;  Literature,  67, 

CHAPTER   III 
RYE  AND  BARLEY         .         .        .        .        .        •        .        .          68-77 

Rye  —  Secale  cereale  .       ' .        .      68 

Barley  —  Hordeum  sativum        .        .        ...        «        •      74 
Laboratory  Exercises,  77  ;  Literature,  77. 

CHAPTER   IV 
CORN  OR  MAIZE  —  Zea  mays        .        .        .        .        .        .         78-97 

Structure,  80 ;  The  Corn  Grain  or  Kernel,  92  ;  Laboratory 
Exercises,  95;  Literature,  97. 

CHAPTER  V 

CORN  —  COMPOSITION  AND  JUDGING      ..'•..        •        •         •        98-111 
Judging  Corn,  101. 

Laboratory  Exercises,  102  ;  Literature,  111. 
xiii 


XIV  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  VI 

PAGE  8 

CORN  —  RACES  AND  VARIETIES    ....        .        .      112-126 

Laboratory  Exercises,  125 ;  Literature,  126. 

CHAPTER  VII 

CORN  —  BREEDING  OR  IMPROVEMENT    .         .         .  127-149 

Laboratory  Exercises,  148 ;  Literature,  149. 

CHAPTER   VIII 

CORN  —  SOILS,  ROTATIONS,  AND  FERTILIZERS      .         .         .      150-157 

Soils,  150 ;   Rotation,   151 ;   Fertilizers,   153 ;  Laboratory 
Exercises,  157;  Literature,  157. 

CHAPTER  IX 

CORN  — THE  TILLAGE  OR  CULTIVATION       ....      158-188 
Laboratory  Exercises,  188  ;  Literature,  188. 

CHAPTER  X 

CORN  —  HARVESTING 189-205 

Laboratory  Exercises,  204  ;  Literature,  205. 

CHAPTER  XI 

CORN  — ENEMIES .      206-216 

Insects,  206  ;  Fungous  Diseases,  214 ;  Laboratory  Exer- 
cises, 216  ;  Literature,  216. 

CHAPTER  XII 

RICE — Oryza  sativa     ....        .        .        .        .        .      217-230 

Laboratory  Exercises,  229 ;  Literature,  230. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   XIII 


PACKS 

231-247 


THE  SORGHUMS  —  Andropogon  sorghum 

The  Sorghums  in  General,  231 ;  Saccharine  or  Sweet  Sor- 
ghums, 234;  Kafir,  239;  Milo,  240;  Broom  Corn,  244; 
Laboratory  Exercises,  245  ;  Literature,  246. 

CHAPTER   XIV 

COTTON  —  STRUCTURE  AND  GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS       .      248-266 
Laboratory  Exercises,  265;  Literature,  266. 

CHAPTER  XV 

COTTON  —  COMPOSITION  AND  THE  PRINCIPAL  USES      .         .      267-273 
Laboratory  Exercises,  273  ;  Literature,  273. 

CHAPTER  XVI 

COTTON  —  THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES      .        .       ••'.„.-«        «      274—281 
Laboratory  Exercises,  281 ;  Literature,  281. 

CHAPTER  XVII 

COTTON  —  VARIETIES  OF  AMERICAN  UPLAND       .         '.'••     «      282-299 
Laboratory  Exercises,  299 ;  Literature,  299. 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

COTTON  BREEDING        .        .        .        .        i        ,  .      .        .      300-314 
Laboratory  Exercises,  813 ;  Literature,  314. 

CHAPTER  XIX 

COTTON  —  SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS      T       .       - .        .        .      315-340 

General  Considerations  on  Fertilizing  Cotton,  315;  Ni- 
trogenous Fertilizers,  325  ;  Phosphatic  Fertilizers,  329 ;  Pot- 
ash Fertilizers,  332  ;  Miscellaneous  Fertilizers  and  Effects  of 
"Fertilizers,  335  ;  Laboratory  Exercises,  339  ;  Literature,  339 


XVi  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  XX 

PAGES 

COTTON — THE  CULTIVATION  OF  THE  AMERICAN  UPLAND  GROUP  341-360 
Laboratory  Exercises,  360  ;  Literature,  360. 

CHAPTER  XXI 

COTTON  —  HARVESTING  AND  MARKETING     ....      361-376 
Laboratory  Exercises,  376  ;  Literature,  376. 

CHAPTER  XXII 

COTTON — HISTORY  AND  STATISTICS  ,  377-387 

Laboratory  Exercises,  387  ;  Literature,  387. 

CHAPTER   XXIII 
COTTON  —  INSECT  ENEMIES  .......      388-410 

Cotton  Boll-worm,  388  ;  Mexican  Cotton  Boll-weevil,  392  ; 
Insects  of  Minor  Importance,  407  ;  Laboratory  Exercises, 
410 ;  Literature,  410. 

CHAPTER   XXIV 

COTTON  —  FUNGOUS  AND  OTHER  DISEASES  ....      411-420 
Laboratory  Exercises,  420 ;  Literature,  420. 

CHAPTER    XXV 

\  HEMP  —  CannaUs  sativa      .'        i        .        .        .        .        .      422-424 
Laboratory  Exercises,  424  ;  Literature,  424. 

CHAPTER   XXVI 
SWEET-POTATO  —  Ipomcea  batatas         ...        .        .        .      425-456 

Composition  and  Uses,  428 ;  Varieties,  431  ;  Soils,  Fer- 
tilizers, and  Rotation,  434 ;  Cultural  Methods,  438 ;  Har- 
vesting and  Storing  Sweet-potatoes,  447  ;  Enemies,  452 ; 
Laboratory  Exercises,  455  ;  Literature,  455. 


CONTENTS  xvil 


CHAPTER   XXVII 

PAGES 

CASSAVA  —  Manihot  utilissima     .        .        .        .        .        .      457-462 

Laboratory  Exercises,  462  ;  Literature,  462. 

CHAPTER  XXVIII 
PEANUT  —  Arachis  hypoycea      :    .        .        .        ...        .      463-483 

Laboratory  Exercises,  482;  Literature,  483. 

CHAPTER   XXIX 
SUGAR-CANE  —  Saccharum  officinarum         .        .         .        .      484-522 

Composition,  492  ;  Soils  and  Fertilizers,  494 ;  Cultural 
Methods,  499 ;  Varieties,  506  ;  Harvesting  and  Uses,  608 ; 
Sirup  Making,  515  ;  History  and  Statistics,  518  ;  Enemies, 
520  ;  Laboratory  Exercises,  522  ;  Literature,  522. 

CHAPTER   XXX 
TOBACCO  —  Nicotiana  tabacum    .        .        .        .        .        .      623-547 

Cultural  Methods,  530 ;  Harvesting  and  Curing,  539 ; 
Enemies,  545  ;  Laboratory  Exercises,  546 ;  Literature,  547. 

GLOSSARY      .        .        .        .        •.        .        .•       .        ...     549 

INDEX   .         .         .         ...         .         .         .  .        i        .     663 


LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


1.  Part  of  an  Oat  Plant,  showing  the  Absence  of  Clasps    .        .  2 

2.  A  Panicle  of  Oats ,        .        .        .        .  3 

3.  Oak  Spikelet  in  Bloom.     (L.  H.  Bailey)        ....  4 

4.  Spikelets  of  Red  Rust-proof  Oats 7 

5.  A  Panicle  of  Red  Rust-proof  Oats 8 

6.  Burt  Oats 10 

7.  Spikelets  of  Burt  Oats 11 

8.  Oats  destroyed  by  Smut 23 

9.  Green-bug  (Toxoptera  gram  in  um).     (S.  J.  Hunter)     .         .  25 

10.  Two    Stages   of    a   Lady-bug    which  destroys   Green-bugs. 

(S.  J.  Hunter) 25 

11.  Oats  and  Wheat  grown  with  Crimson  Clover.     (Alabama 

Experiment  Station)   ........  27 

12.  Part  of  a  Young  Wheat  Plant 34 

13.  Floret  of  Wheat.     (L.  H.  Bailey)          ./                ...  35 

14.  A  Head,  Spikelet,  and  Grain  of  Bearded  Wheat    ...  36 

15.  A  Typical  Head  of  Beardless  Wheat      .         .        .       ',         .37 

16.  A  Good  Sample  of  Wheat.     (California  Experiment  Station)  38 

17.  Heads  of  Wheat 41 

18.  Heads  of  Wheat 42 

19.  Shocks  of  Wheat  from  Equal  Areas.    (Alabama  Experiment 

Station) 49 

20.  Double-disk  Grain  Drill          .        .        .       ..        4        .     .   .  54 

21.  Loose  Smut  of  Wheat    .         .         .        .....        .62 

22.  The  Angoumois  Grain-moth.     (W.  E.  Hinds)       ...  63 

23.  Heads  of  Southern  Rye          .        .        .        .        .        ...  69 

24.  Part  of  a  Young  Rye  Plant,  showing  the  Small  Clasps  of  the 

Leaves         ..........  70 

25.  A  Mixture  of  Rye  and  Crimson  Clover  .        .        .        .        .  72 

26.  Ergot  in  a  Head  of  Rye.     (L.  H.  Bailey)      .        .        .        .  73 

xix  i 


XX  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

27.  A  Head  and  Grains  of  Bearded  Barley  .     '  .  ,        .      .  •    .  74 

28.  The  Large  Clasps  of  Barley  Leaf  .        .        .  • .        .        .75 

29.  Head  and  Spikelet  of  Beardless  Barley  .        .  .        .76 

30.  Roots  of  Corn  47  Days  after  Level  Planting.  (Kansas  Ex- 

periment Station)       .        ,1        „'       .        .        »        .        .      79 

31.  Showing  Roots  of  Corn  47  Days  after  Planting  in  Deep 

Furrows.     (Kansas  Experiment  Station)   .  .        .81 

32.  Brace-roots  on  the  Corn  Plant       .  .        .        .        .      82 

33.  Part  6f  a  Corn  Leaf  showing  Wavy  Margins ....      84 

34.  An  Ear  of  Corn  on  which  Leaf-blades  are  borne  on  the  Tips 

of  many  of  the  Shucks 85 

35.  Differences  in  Height  and  Position  of  Ear  in  the  Same  Va- 

riety   .        .        .        .        ...        .        .        .        .87 

36.  Diagram  showing  Course  of  the  Pollen-tube  from  Silk  to 

Ovary.     (C.  S.  Ridgway) 89 

37.  The  Embryo-sac  of  Corn  at  the  Time  of  Fertilization.     (F.  E. 

Lloyd) 90 

38.  A  Well-proportioned  Ear  of  a  Hard  Yellow  Variety      .        .      91 

39.  Transverse  Section  through  Corn  Grains        .         .        .         .94 
40-45.    Ears  of  Henry  Grady  Corn  to  be  criticized  by  pupils. 

(L.  N.  Duncan) 102-103 

46-57.   Ears  of  Corn  with  Various  Defects.    (L.  N.  Duncan)     104-107 

58.  Ear  with  Long,  Well-formed  Grains      ...         .        .        .108 

59.  Ear  with  Short  Grains    ...        f        .         .        .         .     108 

60.  An  Ear  having  too  much  Space  between  Grains  near  the 

Cob V  -  ;.        .     ,   .        .     108 

61.  An  Ear  in  which  there  is  no  Lost  Space  between  Grains  near 

the  Cob       .        .        .         .         .'..•>•  ..         .    108 

62.  Showing  Variations  among  Corn  Grains        •        .        .        .     109 

63.  Various  Shapes  of  Corn  Kernels.     (Michigan  Experiment 

Station)       .         .  110 

64.  Sections  across  Grains  of  Dent,  Flint,  Pop,  Sweet,  and  Soft 

Corn    .         .        .      . 112 

65.  Longitudinal  Sections  through  Grains  of  Dent,  Flint,  Pop, 

Sweet,  and  Soft  Corn          .         ....        .         .113 

66.  Showing  an  Ear  with  Tip  well  covered  by  Shucks          .        .     115 

67.  Showing  an  Ear  Tip  not  well  covered  by  Shucks  .        .        .115 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xxi 

no.  PAGK 
68,  69.    Varieties  of  Corn.     (Alabama  Experiment  Station)      123,  124 

70.  Showing  the  Immediate  Effects  of  crossing  a  White  Pop 

Corn  with  Pollen  from  a  Yellow  Dent  Corn        .        .        .127 

71.  Relative  Yields  of  the  Same  Variety  of  Corn  from  2  Breed- 

ing Rows  of  the  Same  Length.     (Oklahoma  Experiment 

Station) 132 

72.  Diagram  showing  Arrangement  of  Rows  in  Corn  Breeding- 

plot     134 

73.  Germinator  made  from  a  Soap  Box.     (Office  of  Experiment 

Stations,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.)         .        .        .         .        .         .139 

74.  Showing  Injury  from.  In-breeding  Corn.   (U.  S.  Department 

of  Agriculture)    .        .......        •         .        .        .        .  141 

75.  Showing  Larger  Yield  on  Row  not  In-bred.      (U.  S.  Depart- 

ment of  Agriculture)  .        .        •        •        •        .         .        .  141 

76.  Young  Corn  Plants,  from  Tip,  Middle,  and  Butt  Kernels. 

(Michigan  Experiment  Station)           .  146 

77.  A  Stalk-cutter.     (B.  F.  Avery  &  Sons  Co.)  .        .        .        .  158 

78.  A  Subsoil  Plow.     (L.  H.  Bailey)  .        .        .        ...  163 

79.  A  Turn-plow.         .        .        ,        ..•*,..     .        .  164 

80.  A  Disk-plow.     (B.  F.  Avery  &  Sons  Co.)     .        .        .        .  165 

81.  Combined  Lister  and  Corn  Planter.     (U.  S.  Department  of 

Agriculture) 165 

82.  A  One-row  Corn  Planter.     (B.  F.  Avery  &  Sons  Co.)  .        .  167 

83.  Diagram  of  Young  Corn  Plants      .        .      ,.:.''.   v\    .  168 

84.  Hand  Corn  Planter,  for  Replanting       «        .        .        .        .  169 

85.  A  Spike-tooth  Harrow.     (B.  F.  Avery  &  Sons  Co.)      .        .  171 

86.  A  Weeder.     (L.  H.  Bailey) 172 

87.  A  One-horse,  Spring-tooth  Harrow.     (B.  F.  Avery  &  Sons 

Co.) 173 

88.  Check-row  Corn  Planter  with  Double  Disks  to  open  a  Deep 

Furrow.     (U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture)    .        .        .175 

89.  Cowpeas  growing  between  Rows  of  Corn       ....  182 

90.  The  Williamson  Method  of  Corn  Culture       ....  186 

91.  Condition  of  Surface  after  "Laying  by"  Corn  according  to 

the  Williamson  Plan 187 

92.  Showing  "Throw-board"  on  Wagon-body  used  in  Harvest- 

ing Corn.     (Oklahoma  Experiment  Station) .     .        .  190 


xxil  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

93.  Shocking  Horse 194 

94.  Com  well  Shocked.     (Oklahoma  Experiment  Station)        .     196 

95.  Sled  Corn  Cutter,  with  Automatic  Knife  Guards.     (U.  S. 

Department  of  Agriculture)      .        »        »        .        • '       .     197 

96.  A  Home-made  Sled  Corn  Cutter.     (U.  S.  Department  of 

Agriculture) .197 

97.  A  Corn  Harvester.     (International  Harvester  Co.)      .        .     199 

98.  Corn  Husker  and  Shredder  at  Work.    (L.  H.  Bailey)         .     200 

99.  A  Field  of  Corn  in  Alabama  that  yielded  103f  Bushels  per 

Acre.     (Farmer's  Cooperative  Demonstration  Work)      .     203 

100.  The  Bud  worm  of  Corn  (Diabrotica  12-punctata) .     (After 

Chittenden) -  .        .        .206 

101.  Eggs  of  Corn  Ear-worm  on  Corn  Silks.    (A.  L.  Quaintance, 

U.  S.  Dept.  A gr.,  Bureau  of  Entomology)        .        .        .     208 

102.  The  Corn  Ear-worm  at  Work  in  the  Tip  of  an  Ear  of  Green 

Corn.     (A.  L.  Quaintance,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of 
Entomology) 209 

103.  The  Corn  Ear-worm  preying  on  the  Tender  Leaves  of  Corn. 

(A.  L.  Quaintance,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Ento- 
mology)   210 

104.  The  Rice  Weevil,  most  Destructive  in  Stored  Corn.     (Photo 

by  W.  E.  Hinds) 211 

105.  An  Ear  of  Corn  injured  by  Weevils.     (Photo  by  W.  E. 

Hinds) 212 

106.  Larva  of  Angoumois  Moth  in  a  Grain  of  Corn.     (Photo  by 

W.  E.  Hinds) 213 

107.  The  Indian  Meal  Moth.     (Photo  by  W.  E.  Hinds)      .        .214 

108.  Corn  Smut.     (L.  H.  Bailey) 215 

109.  Bundles  of  Two  Varieties  of  Rice        .        .        .        .        .    218 

110.  111.   Two  Types  of  Rice.     (L.  H.  Bailey)    .        .        .        .220 

112.  Preparing  for  Rice  in  Louisiana.     (Louisiana  Experiment 

Station)     .        .        ,        .        .        ...        .        .     222 

113.  An  Experimental  Field  of  Rice  at  Crowley,  La.     (Louisi- 

ana Experiment  Station)  .        ,       .-« .       .        .        .        .     224 

114.  A  Rice  Field  after  Harvest.     (Louisiana  Experiment  Sta- 

tion)                  .        .227 

116.   Heads  of  Amber  Sorghum,  and  of  Red  Kafir        .        .        .234 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  Xxiii 

FTO.  PAGB 

116.  Orange  Sorghum.     (Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  De- 

partment of  Agriculture)  .         ...        .         .         .  235 

117.  Goose  Neck  Sorghum.     (Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S. 

Department  of  Agriculture)      .         *        •        v        *         .  236 

118.  A  Field  of  Black-hulled  White  Kafir.     (E.  B.  Voorhees)    .  238 

119.  Heads  of  Milo  and  of  Black-hulled  White  Kafir.     (E.  B. 

Voorhees)          ,       -.        .        .        ,        .    •  '  .        .         .  239 

120.  Broom-corn  Brush -  .       ;.        .  242 

121.  A  Vegetative  Branch  from  near  the  Base  of  a  Cotton  Plant  249 

122.  A  Fruiting  Branch  of  a  Cotton  Plant  .   -   ..        .        .        .250 

123.  A  Cotton  Plant     .        .         .        ......  251 

124.  Cotton  Plant,  on  which  the  Vegetative  Branches  are  Sup- 

pressed              ...        .         .  252 

125.  A  Cotton  Plant,  having  only  Fruiting  Limbs        .         .        .  253 

126.  Cotton  Leaves 255 

127.  Cotton  Bolls.     (U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture)       .        .  258 

128.  A  Cotton  Plant  deficient  in  Storm-resistance        .        *        .  200 

129.  Storm-resistant  Boll  and  Burs ;    Bolls  and  Burs  lacking 

Storm-resistance        .         .         .        .        .        .        .        .  261 

130.  Various  Shapes  of  Cotton  Bolls    .       •.     '  V*.  *        .         .277 

131.  A  Sea  Island  Cotton  Plant   .        .        ,        ....  278 

132.  Where  Sea  Island  Cotton  is  Grown.     (U.  S.  Department 

of  Agriculture)        •  •,...       .        .        .""«•..        »        .  279 

133.  A  Cotton  Plant  of  the  Cluster  Type.     (U.  S.  Department 

of  Agriculture) .        .284 

134.  A  Fruiting  Limb  of  a  Cluster  Cotton  Plant .                 .        .  285 

135.  A  Cotton  Plant  of  the  Semicluster  Type      .        .      .  ,      '.  286 

136.  The  Peterkin  Type  of  Cotton  Plant 287 

137.  A  Cotton  Plant  of  the  King  Type        V       .        .        .        .  288 

138.  A  Cotton  Plant  of  the  Big-boll,  Storm-proof  Type       .  <     .  289 

139.  A  Cotton  Plant  of  the  Long-staple,  Upland  Type.     (U.  S. 

Department  of  Agriculture)      .        .        .         .        .        .  291 

140.  Fibers  of  Several  Varieties  of  Cotton   .        .-•...        .  292 

141.  A  Productive  Cotton  Plant  of  the  Toole  Variety          .        .  297 

142.  A  Productive  Cotton  Plant.     (University  of  Georgia)          .  303 

143.  An  Unproductive  Cotton  Plant.     (University  of  Georgia)   .  304 

144.  Diagram  showing  a  Breeding  Plot  of  Twenty   Rows  of 

Cotton  311 


xxiv  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

145.  Diagram  showing  Method  of  selecting  Cotton.      (H.  J. 

Webber) 312 

146.  Cotton  Plants,  showing  Retention  of  Leaves  ;  and  Shedding 

of  Leaves  .        .        .         .        .        .  .       ,..        .     316 

147.  A  Field  of  Cotton,  Fertilized  and  Unfertilized     .        .        .322 

148.  A  Field  of  Cotton,  showing  the  Effects  of  Potash  in  retain- 

ing the  Leaves  .     .   .        .      •  .        .        ,        ...     334 

149.  A  Middle  Burster,  or  Double  Moldboard  Plow.      (B.  F. 

A  very  &  Sons  Co.)    .        .        .        ,        *        ,        .        .346 

150.  An  Inexpensive  Cotton  Planter 349 

151.  One  Form  of  Plow-stock 352 

152.  A  Young  Cotton  Plant,  showing  Two  Seed-leaves  and  Two 

True  Leaves      ...        .        .        .    '     .        .        .     353 

153.  Various  Forms  of  Sweeps  and  Scrapes  used  in  cultivating 

Cotton.     (L.  H.  Bailey) 354 

154.  An  Alabama  Cotton  Field.     (Farmer's  Cooperative  Demon- 

stration Work)          .        .        ...         .        .         .        .     362 

155.  The  Worswick-Hardt  Cotton  Picker  at  Work      .        .        .364 

156.  The  Dixie  Cotton  Picker       .......     366 

1571   Vertical  Section  through  the  Dixie  Cotton  Picker  when  at 

Work 367 

158.  Section  through  a  Ginnery.     (Continental  Gin  Company)  .     368 

159.  Transverse  Section  through  a  Cotton  Gin.     (Continental 

Gin  Company) .         .         .        .         .        .        ....     369 

160.  Foreign  and  American  Bales        .  ,      •.        .>       .        .        .     370 

161.  Cotton  Bales  left  unprotected  from  Rain      .        .        .        .372 

162.  Side  View  of  Cotton  Bales   .        .        ...        .        ...    372 

163.  Bales  from  a  Gin  Compress.     (Farmers'   Gin  Compress 

Company) .     373 

164.  The  Propelling  Mechanism  of  an  Old  Horse-power  Gin. 

•  (From  D.  A.  Tompkins'  "  Cotton  a  Factor,  in  Progress  ")     378 

165.  Percentage  of  the  Total  American  Crop  of  Cotton  grown  in 

Each  State  in  1908.     (U.  S.  Census  Bureau)    .         .         .382 

166.  Percentage  of  World's  Mill  Supply  of  Cotton  contributed 

by  Each  Country  in  1908.     (U.  S.  Census  Bureau)  .         .     385 

167.  Moths  of  Cotton  Boll-worm  and  Corn  Ear-worm.     (U.  S. 

Dept.  Agr. ,  Bureau  of  Entomology)         .        .        .        .     390 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  XXV 

FIG.  PAGK 

168.  The  Cotton  Boll-worm  on  the  Outside  of  a  Cotton  Boll. 

(U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Entomology)      .         .         .    391 

169.  Pupal  or  Chrysalis  Stage  of  the  Cotton  Boll-worm  and  the 

Corn  Ear- worm.     (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Ento- 
mology)             ...     392 

170.  Pupa  of  Boll-worm  in  its  Underground  Burrow.     (After 

Quaintance  and  Brues,   U.  S.  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture)           393 

171.  The  Mature  Boll-weevil.     (W.  E.  Hinds)    .        .        .        .394 

172.  Cotton  Square,   showing   Boll-weevil  Larva  in   Position. 

(After  W.  D.  Hunter,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Ento- 
mology)      395 

173.  Punctured  Cotton  Square.     (After  W.  D.  Hunter,  U.  S. 

Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Entomology)         ....     396 

174.  Cotton  Stalk  Cutter.     (Louisiana  Crop  Pest  Commission)  .     400 

175.  Side  View  of  Cotton  Stalk  Cutter.     (Louisiana  Crop  Pest 

Commission)     .         ,.        ,        ,        ,        ..••-.*''      .     400 

176.  Cotton  Plant  in  the  "Budding"  Stage.     (Louisiana  Crop 

Pest  Commission)      ...      .  ,.    -^       .    ,    v        .    402 

177.  The  Hinds  Chain  Cultivator.     (W.  E.  Hinds)     .        ...    403 

178.  Map  showing  the  Areas  infested  by  the  Boll- weevil.   (U.  S. 

Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Entomology)          .        .         .         .     404 

179.  Cowpea-pod  Weevil.     (After  Chittenden,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr., 

Bureau  of  Entomology)    .         .        »        .         .  .         .  408 

180.  Cotton  Plants  attacked  by  Wilt    .        .        .        *  .   v   .  412 

181.  Section  through  Wilted  and  Healthy  Cotton  Stalks  .        .  413 

182.  Root-knot  or  Nematode  Injuries  on  Cotton  Roots.  (C.  F. 

Atkinson)          .        .  .    •-.        „ -     ,.  ~ '    .        .        .         .     415 

183.  Anthracnose  on  Cotton  Bolls.     (C.  F.  Atkinson)        .        .    417 

184.  Diseased  Leaves,  Boll,  and  Stem  of  Cotton  Plant.     (W.  A. 

Orton,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture)      .        . 420 

185.  A  Field  of  Hemp.     (Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  De- 

partment of  Agriculture)  ...»        .         .         .        .     422 

186.  Leaf  and  Flowers  of  Hemp.     (L.  H.  Bailey)        .        .         .    423 

187.  Shocking  Hemp.     (L.  H.  Bailey) 425 

188.  A  Field  of  Sweet-potatoes  in  Alabama         .        .        .        .427 


XXVI  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAOH 

189.  A  Branch  of  a  Vineless  Sweet-potato  Plant.     (After  Price, 

Texas  Experiment  Station)       .        ......         .    434 

190.  Three  Shapes  of  Sweet-potato  Leaves.     (After  Price,  Texas 

Experiment  Station)         .        .        .        ...        .434 

191.  Sweet-potato  Slips  ready  to  be  set.     (U.  S.  Department  of 

Agriculture)      .        . '      • »        . 442 

192.  Devices  employed  in  Setting  Sweet-potato  Slips  and  Vine 

Cuttings.     (U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture)          .         .     444 

193.  Transplanting    Machine  setting  Sweet-potatoes.      (L.   H. 

Bailey)      .         .        .        .         . 444 

194.  Sweet-potatoes  attached  to  a  Section  of  Planted  Vine          .     445 

195.  Special  Plows  for  Digging  Sweet-potatoes.     (U.  S.  Depart- 

ment of  Agriculture) 449 

196.  End  View  of  House  for  Storing  Sweet-potatoes    .         .         .     452 

197.  Cross  Section  through  Sweet-potato,  showing  Injuries  by 

Borer.     (After  Conradi,  Texas  Experiment  Station)        .     454 

198.  Black-rot  on  Root  and  Slip  of  Sweet-potato.     (After  B. 

Halsted,  New  Jersey  Experiment  Station)        ...     455 

199.  The  Cassava  Plant.     (U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture)     .     458 

200.  Method  of  Preparing  Bed  for  Keeping  Cassava  Seed-ste*ms 

over  Winter.     (S.  M.  Tracy,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture)      462 

201.  The  Lower  Part  of  a  Peanut  Plant.     (U.  S.  Department  of 

Agriculture)      . 466 

202.  A  Peanut  "Popper."     (W.  N.  Roper)         .        .        .        .     471 

203.  A  Field  of  Spanish  Peanuts  grown  from  Selected  Seed. 

(W.  N.  Roper,  American  Nut  Journal")    .        .        .         .473 

204.  Pods  and  Peas  of  Three  Varieties  of  Peanuts.     (U.  S.  De- 

partment of  Agriculture)  .        .        .        .       v       .        .     476 

205.  A  Bunch  of  Spanish  Peanuts.     (W.  N.  Roper)   .         .         .478 

206.  Stacking  Peanuts.     (U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture)       .     481 

207.  A  Part  of  a  Stem  of  Sugar-cane.     (W.  C.  Stubbs)       .        .     487 

208.  Cross  Section  of  Part  of  a  Stem  of  Sugar-cane.     (W.  R. 

Dodson)    .        .......         .         .488 

209.  Cross  Section  through  a  Bundle  from  the  Stem  of  Sugar- 

cane.    (W.  R.  Dodson)    .         .         .        .  •  .  •»  '      .        .488 

210.  One  Form  of  Cane  Loader.     (L.  H.  Bailey)        .        .        .500 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xxvil 

pro.  PAGE 

211.  A  Field  of  Velvet  Beans 604 

212.  Cutting  Sugar-cane  in  Louisiana.     (W.  R.  Dodson)    .        .     508 

213.  A  Cane  Stripper 509 

214.  Diagram  of  Tobacco  Flower.     (After  Shamel  and  Cobey)  .     527 

215.  Showing  the  Results  of  Breeding  a  Strain  of  Tobacco  Re- 

sistant to  Disease.     (Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture)      .        .        .        ;        .        .     528 

216.  Young  Tobacco  Plants.     (Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S. 

Department  of  Agriculture)       .         .,      .    r    .        .        .     528 

217.  A  Tobacco  Seed  Blower.     (A.  D.  Shamel)  .        .        .        .     529 

218.  A  Cloth  Shade  or  Tent.     (Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S. 

Department  of  Agriculture) 530 

219.  A  Transplanting  Machine  for  Setting  Tobacco.     (Bureau 

of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture)        .     534 

220.  Young  Tobacco  Plants  growing  under  a  Lath  Shade  in 

Alabama  ' 536 

221.  Diagram  showing  how  Leaves  of  Wrapper  Tobacco  are  Cut. 

(U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture)   .        ....     543 

222.  Southern  Tobacco  Worm.     (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of 

Entomology)     .        .        .        .        ....        .        .     545 


SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 


CHAPTER  I 

OATS  —  AVENA  SATIVA 

THE  oat  plant  is  included  in  the  great  family  of  the 
grasses  (Graminece),  as  are  all  the  grains.  It  came  into 
use  at  a  later  date  than  did  wheat  and  barley. 

The  seed  or  grain  of  oats  is  used  chiefly  as  food  for 
horses.  It  is  also  employed,  in  the  form  of  oatmeal  and 
other  cereal  dishes,  as  human  food.  The  oat  plant  is 
useful  for  hay  and  for  pasturage.  Its  straw  is  utilized  as 
food  and  bedding  for  animals  and  as  packing  material. 

STRUCTURE 

1.  Roots.  —  The  oat,  as  the  other  grains,  is  a  fibrous- 
rooted  plant,  having  no  tap-root.     The  crown  from  which 
the  main  stems  originate  is  usually  within  about  an  inch 
of  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

2.  Stems.  —  The  stems  of  the  oat  plant  originate  in  the 
same  way  as  those  of  the  wheat,  each  as  a  developed  bud 
or  branch,  from  an  older  stem.     At  each  underground  node 
of  every  stem  a  bud  may  develop  into  another  stalk  and 
its  lower  nodes  in  turn  may  send  out  additional  shoots. 
Hence  a  single  plant  may  bear  an  indefinite  number  of 
stems,  the  usual  number,  however,  being  two  to  six.    A 
large  number  is  formed  by  thin  sowing  and  by  abundance 
of  moisture  and  plant-food,  or  by  hilling  up  earth  around 

B  1 


2 


FIELD   CROPS 


the  lower  nodes.  The  conditions  that  hinder  tillering 
(sometimes  limiting  the  number  of  stems  to  one  or  two  to 
the  plant)  are  thick  sowing,  late  sowing,  and  deficiency 
of  moisture  or  plant-food. 

3.  Leaves.  —  The  leaf-blade  of  the  oat  is  wider  than  that 
of  wheat  or  rye,  and  on  its  margins  are  scattering  hairs  so 
fine  as  to  be  noticed  only  on  care- 
ful examination. 

At  the  junction  of  the  leaf -blade 
and  sheath  there  are  no  clasps 
or  auricles  (Fig.  1),  which  absence 
serves  to  distinguish  the  young 
oat  plant  from  that  of  any  other 
small  grain. 

4.  Pollination.  —  The  oat  in  na- 
ture is  self-pollinated ;  hence  there 
is  practically  no  danger  of  crossing 
between  different  varieties.     Sev- 
eral   varieties    may    properly   be 
sown   in    adjacent  fields,   if   care 
is  taken  to  prevent  mixing  by  me- 
chanical means,  as  in  harvesting 
and  threshing. 

5.  The  panicle  and  spikelets.  — 
The    grain-bearing    part    of    the 
plant,    though    usually    called    a 

head,  is  really  a  panicle,  or  widely  branched  terminal  part 
of  the  stem  (Fig.  2).  The  branches  of  the  head  originate 
at  the  upper  nodes  or  joints  of  the  stem,  several  usually 
springing  from  each  node.  Each  branch  may  bear  a  single 
spikelet  (that  is,  a  group  of  grains)  or  several  spikelets. 


FIG.  1. —  PART  OF  AN  OAT 
PLANT. 

Showing  the  absence  of 
clasps  where  leaf-blade  and 
sheath  join. 


FIG.  2.  —  A  PANICLE  OF  OATS. 

The  type  here  shown  is  Kherson,  an  early  variety. 

3 


SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 


Each  spikelet  (Fig.  3)  consists  of  two  or  more  flowers, 
of  which  usually  only  two  develop  into  perfect  grains. 
Those  that  usually  develop  are  the 
two  grains  nearest  to  the  branch,  the 
nearer  or  lower  one  being  almost  invari- 
ably the  larger  seed.  Hence  an  oat 
spikelet  may  be  said  to  consist  in  most 
instances  of  twin  grains  which  may  or 
may  not  be  separated  in  threshing. 

The  third  flower  coming  from  the 
branch  somet  mes  develops  into  a  small 
grain,  but  more  frequently  it  is  abortive, 
<*  undeveloped. 

6-  The  grain.  —  Each  gram  consists 
cylindrical  kernel  and  of 

one        oang  h^      This  hul1  is  tightly 

pollen  cases  (anthers)  wrapped  about  the  kernel,  and  is  usu- 
and2  plume-like  stig-  ally  not  remOved  in  threshing;  but  the 
two  parts  are  not  grown  together,  as 
shown  by  the  fact  that  by  pinching  the  grain  between  the 
fingers  the  inner  part  can  readily  be  forced  out,  free  from 
any  hull. 

In  most  states  the  legal  weight  of  a  bushel  of  oats  is  32  pounds. 
A  measured  bushel  usually  weighs  30  to  36  pounds.  Oats  are  sold 
by  the  bushel  of  legal  weight. 

Saunders  found  that  in  the  cool  climate  of  Canada  oats  germi- 
nated well  even  when  the  seeds  were  three  years  old,  after  which 
time  the  percentage  of  germination  rapidly  decreased. 

COMPOSITION 

7.  Analyses.  —  According  to  Hunt  ("  Cereals  in  Amer- 
ica") the  average  of  American  analyses  is  as  follows:  — 


Showing    2    outer 

pieces  of  chaff  incios-  of  a  nearly 

ing 


OATS 


OAT 

GRAIN 

OAT 
KERNEL 

OAT 

STRAW 

OAT  HAY 

CUT  IN 

MILK 

OAT  HULLS 

Water    .     . 

11.0 

7.9 

9.2 

15.0 

7.3 

Ash   ... 

3.0 

2.0 

5.1 

5.2 

6.7 

Protein  .     . 

11.8 

14.7 

4.0 

9.3 

3.3 

Crude  fiber 

9.5 

0.9 

37.0 

29.2 

29.7 

Nitrogen-free 

extract    . 

59.7 

67.4 

42.4 

39.0 

52.0 

Fat    ... 

5.0 

7.1 

2.3 

2.3 

1.0 

Since  the  percentage  of  hulls  varies  in  different  varieties 
and  in  different  seasons,  the  composition  of  different  lots 
of  oats  is  naturally  variable.  A  sample  of  oats  with 
slender  or  incompletely  filled  grains  is  inferior  in  composi- 
tion and  food  value  to  a  sample  of  plump  oats.  The  hull 
averages  about  30  per  cent  of  the  total  weight  of  the  grain. 

8.  Draft  on  soil  fertility.  —  The  following  table 1  shows 
the  amounts  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  re- 
moved from  the  soil  in  a  crop  of  40  bushels  of  oats  and 
the  accompanying  amount  of  straw :  — 


NITROGEN 

PHOSPHORIC 
ACID 

POTASH 

Oat  grains,  with  hulls,  per  cent  . 
Oat  straw  per  cent 

1.76 
0  56 

0.59 

28 

0.48 
1  62 

Oat  grain  removes  in  a  crop  of 
40  bu.  (12801b.),lb  
Oat  straw  (1500  Ib.)  removes,  Ib. 
Total  crop  of  40  bu.  and  1500  Ib. 
of  straw  removes,  Ib.  .    .    *—f~ 

22.53 
8.40 

30.93 

8.83 
4.20 

13.03 

6.14 
24.30 

30.44 

1  Calculated  from  data  in  Hopkins' 
manent  Agriculture." 


Soil  Fertility  and  Per- 


6  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

From  the  above  table  it  may  be  seen  that  the  oat  plant 
makes  considerable  demands  on  soil  fertility;  that  the 
greater  part  of  the  nitrogen  and  of  the  phosphoric  acid  is 
removed  by  the  grain;  and  that  by  far  the  greater  part  of 
the  potash  is  removed  by  the  straw. 

These  figures  should  impress  the  fact  that  the  straw 
should  be  returned  to  the  land  in  the  form  of  stable  manure, 
after  having  been  used  either  as  food  or  bedding.  In  case 
it  is  impracticable  to  make  either  of  these  uses  of  the  straw, 
the  stacks  should  not  be  burned  nor  left  to  rot  in  one 
place,  but  immediately  or  after  partly  rotting  the  straw 
should  be  distributed  over  the  galled  spots  in  the  fields. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  a  good  crop  of  oats,  if  the  straw  be 
carried  off,  removes  a  considerable  amount  of  plant-food,  yet  ex- 
perience shows  that  the  occasional  introduction  of  an  oat  crop 
into  the  rotation  increases  the  yield  of  succeeding  crops.  This 
is  chiefly  because  of  the  vegetation  occupying  the  land  after  oats 
are  harvested.  Even  the  growth  of  a  mass  of  weeds  may  be  help- 
ful to  some  soils.  However,  the  oat  crop  gives  opportunity  to 
improve  the  land  still  more  rapidly,  due  to  the  succeeding  growth 
of  cowpeas,  which  is  usually  the  best  crop  to  follow  oats. 

VARIETIES 

9.  Types  of  Southern  oats.  —  In  Europe,  Canada,  and 
the  northern  part  of  the  United  States,  the  number  of 
varieties  of  oats  in  cultivation  is  considerable.  However, 
nowhere  does  the  number  equal  that  of  varieties  of  wheat. 

In  the  Gulf  States,  few  varieties  of  oats  are  grown.  The 
types  most  commonly  raised  in  the  South  are:  — 

(1)  Red  Rust-proof; 

(2)  Burt; 

(3)  Turf  or  Grazing. 


OATS  1 

Each  of  these  may  be  known  under  several  names,  or 
may  have  several  strains.  For  example,  among  the  sub- 
varieties  or  selections  of  the  Red  Rust-proof  type  are 
Appier,  Culberson,  and  Bancroft. 

10.  Red  Rust-proof  oats.  —  This  is  the  most  popular 
type  of  oats  from  North  Carolina  to  Texas,  and  is  variously 
called  Red  oats,  Rust-proof  oats,  and  Texas  oats.  It  and 
its  strains  may  be  recognized,  or  distinguished  from  other 
varieties,  by  the  following  characteris- 
tics :  When  a  bunch  of  slender  bristles 
is  present  at  the  base  of  the  lower  grain 
of  a  spikelet,  they  are  of  greater  length 
than  those  sometimes  occurring  on 
other  varieties  growing  in  the  South 
(Fig.  4) ;  and  almost  invariably  both 
of  the  developed  grains  in  a  spikelet 
are  armed  with  beards,  while  in  most 
other  varieties  the  beards,  if  present, 
usually  occur  only  on  the  larger  grain 
in  each  spikelet.  The  usual  means  of  ^ 

FIG.  4. — SPIKELETSOF 
distinguishing  Red  Rust-proof   Oats   IS    RED  RUST-PROOF  OATS. 

by  the  reddish  or  yellowish  appearance  Note  length  of  bris- 
of  the  grains  that  have  not  been  stained  tles  at  base  of  spikelet- 
by  bad  weather,  and  the  greater  plumpness  of  the  grains 
as  compared  with  those  of  other  Southern  varieties.  The 
head  or  panicle  is  rather  compact,  and  the  branches  short 
(Fig.  5). 

The  straw  of  Red  Rust-proof  oats  is  stout  or  large,  and 
on  poor  or  medium  land  the  plants  do  not  grow  as  tall  as 
do  those  of  Burt  and  Turf  oats.  This  stout  straw  makes 
Red  Rust-proof  oats  less  liable  to  fall  or  lodge  than  are  the 


8 


SOUTHERN  FIELL   CHOPS 


varieties  just  mentioned.     In  crops  yielding   15   to   30 
bushels  per  acre,  there  is  usually  about  the  same  weight 


FIG.  5.  —  A  PANICLE  OF  RED  RUST-PROOF  OATS. 


of  straw  as  of  threshed  grain ;  as  the  yield  increases  the 
percentage  of  straw  increases. 


OATS  9 

The  Red  Rust-proof  variety  and  its  various  strains  — 
Appier,  Culberson,  and  Bancroft  —  may  be  sown  either  in 
the  fall  or  after  Christmas.  In  hardiness  toward  cold,  or 
ability  successfully  to  withstand  a  severe  winter,  this 
variety  is  superior  to  Burt  but  less  hardy  than  Turf,  and 
decidedly  less  hardy  than  barley,  wheat,  or  rye.  In  spite 
of  the  occasional  winter-killing  of  a  crop  of  Red  oats  sown 
in  the  fall,  it  is  usually  more  profitable  throughout  the 
greater  part  of  the  cotton-belt  to  sow  in  the  fall  than  after 
Christmas.  Means  of  decreasing  winter-killing  are  in- 
dicated in  paragraph  22. 

In  maturity,  the  Red  Rust-proof  group  of  varieties  is 
earlier  by  two  to  three  weeks  than  Turf  oats  sown  at  the 
same  time  in  the  fall.  When  sown  after  Christmas,  Red 
oats  are  at  least  a  week  later  than  Burt  oats  sown  at  the 
same  time. 

Red  Rust-proof  oats  are  not  really  completely  rust- 
proof, but  strongly  rust-resistant.  In  years  when  rust  is 
especially  severe,  this  variety  is  attacked  and  occasionally 
rather  severely  injured,  but  never  to  the  same  extent  as 
other  varieties. 

In  yield  of  grain,  the  Red  Rust-proof  type  has  on  the 
whole  been  more  satisfactory  in  the  cotton-belt  than  any 
other.  It  is  especially  more  productive  than  Turf  oats 
where  the  soil  is  poor  or  when  the  weather  conditions  are 
unfavorable. 

Appier  is  a  popular  variety  of  the  Red  Rust-proof  type> 
which  sometimes  has  proved  slightly  more  productive 
than  an  unselected  strain  of  the  Red  Rust-proof. 

11.  Burt  oats.  —  This  variety  (Figs.  6  and  7),  sometimes 
known  as  "  May  oats,"  has  a  slender,  bearded  grain,  usu- 


10 


SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 


FIG.  6.  —  BURT  OATS. 


ally  of  a  grayish  or  light  dun  color.     The  branches  of  the 
head  are  long.     In  the  greater  part  of  the  cotton  region 


OATS 


11 


the  Biirt  oat  cannot  safely  be  planted  in  the  fall,  for  it  is 

frequently  winter-killed.     It  is  essentially  a  variety  for 

sowing  after  Christmas.     It  is  the  earliest  of  the  commonly 

grown  varieties  of  the  Southern  region.  I 

Its   earliness,    together   with   its    great 

height  of  straw,  are  in  its  favor  when 

the  date  of  sowing  is  late.     The  grain 

weighs  less  per  bushel  than  Red  oats, 

and   shatters   much  more  easily  when 

harvested. 

12.  Turf  or  Grazing  oats.  — Among 
the  names  given  to  this  variety,  or  to 
strains  of  it,  are  Gray,  Virginia  Gray; 
Winter,  Turf,  and  Myers'  Turf.  This 
is  the  hardiest  of  the  varieties,  and  has 
been  known  to  survive  the  winters  a 
little  higher  than  the  latitude  of  northern 
Virginia.  It  is  practically  safe  against  winter-killing 
throughout  the  cotton-belt;  yet  it  is  not  so  hardy  as 
wheat. 

The  grain  is  slender  and  of  a  gray  or  light  dun  color. 
Usually  there  are  beards  on  one  grain  in  each  spikelet. 
This  oat  branches  or  stools  freely,  thus  making  it  especially 
valuable  for  pasturing,  and  winning  for  it  the  name  of 
"  grazing  oats."  The  straw  is  tall  and  slender. 

This  variety  ripens  about  two  weeks  later  than  Red  Rust-proof 
oats  sown  at  the  same  time.  It  is  much  more  susceptible  to  rust ; 
and  on  poor  land  or  with  unfavorable  seasons  it  often  fails  to 
produce  plump,  well-filled  grains.  Its  best  place  is  in  the  region 
just  north  of  the  cotton-belt. 

Turf  oats  are  unsuitable  for  sowing  after  Christmas.  This 
variety  requires  earlier  planting  in  the  fall  than  Red  oats. 


FIG.  7.  —  SPIKELETS 
OF  BUBT  OATS. 

Note  shortness  of 
basal  bristles,  which 
are  barely  visible. 


12  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 

Turf  oats  are  suitable  for  sowing  with  hairy  vetch  when  both 
vetch  and  oats  are  to  be  threshed  for  seed.  On  rich  land,  the 
two  plants  ripen  together,  and  usually  enough  seed  of  both  are 
shattered  in  harvesting  to  reseed  the  land  the  next  fall.  On 
poor  and  medium  land  Turf  oats  grow  off  too  slowly  to  be  ready 
to  cut  for  hay  when  hairy  vetch  is  in  the  best  condition  for  hay 
making.  Therefore,  for  purposes  of  making  hay  it  is  usually 
better  to  sow  vetch  with  Red  Rust-proof  oats  than  with  Turf 
oats. 

The  weight  of  straw  is  usually  about  double  that  of  grain. 

13.  Improvement  of  varieties.  —  Much  less  work  has 
been  done  in  improving  the  oat  by  selection  and  breeding 
than  in  cotton,  corn,  and  wheat.  Breeding  experiments 
at  the  Alabama  Experiment  Station  with  the  Red  Rust- 
proof variety  have  shown  clearly  that  most  samples  of  seed 
of  this  variety  are  badly  mixed ;  that  even  in  apparently 
uniform  samples  there  are  numerous  strains  or  elementary 
species;  and  that  careful  selection  of  individual  plants 
may  result  in  modifying  the  yield,  the  time  of  maturity, 
and  other  qualities. 

Desirable  improvements  in  the  Red  Rust-proof  variety 
are:  (1)  increased  yield ;  (2)  greater  uniformity ;  (3)  elimi- 
nation of  the  beards  and  of  the  black  grains ;  and  (4)  in- 
creased resistance  to  rust. 

Desirable  improvements  in  the  Burt  oats  are:  (1)  larger 
yields;  (2)  increased  uniformity;  (3)  elimination  of  the 
tendency  to  shatter;  (4)  greater  plumpness  of  grain; 
and  (5)  adaptation  of  this  variety  to  fall  sowing,  by  selec- 
tion of  plants  that  withstand  the  cold  of  winter. 

For  sowing  in  the  fall,  preference  should  be  given  to 
seed  from  a  strain  which  has  been  repeatedly  sown  at  this 
season. 


OATS  13 

CLIMATE,  SOILS,  AND  FERTILIZERS  FOR  OATS 

14.  Climate.  —  The  oat  plant  is  most  at  home  in  a  cool 
moist  climate.     Yet  in  the  Southern  States,  with  a  moist 
but  hot  climate,  it  is  successfully  cultivated,  although  the 
yield  per  acre  and  the  weight  per  measured  bushel  are 
reduced.     In  the  South,  climate  is  most  important  in  de- 
termining whether  Red  Rust-proof  oats,  the  kind  most 
extensively  grown,  should  be  sown  in  the  fall  or  after  mid- 
winter. 

That  part  of  the  South  in  which  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
crop  of  Red  Rust-proof  oats  is  sown  in  the  fall  lies  south  of  a  line 
drawn  nearly  through  Birmingham  in  Alabama,  Atlanta  in  Georgia, 
Charlotte  in  North  Carolina,  and  Norfolk  in  Virginia.  Yet,  ex- 
perience shows  that  it  is  profitable  to  sow  Red  Rust-proof  oats  in 
the  fall  considerably  northward  of  this  line,  though  at  the  risk 
of  more  frequent  failures  from  winter-killing.  Even  in  the 
northern  third  of  the  Gulf  States,  this  class  of  oats,  when  sown 
in  the  fall,  is  not  seriously  injured  by  cold  in  one  winter  out  of 
three.  Since  two  crops  of  fall-sown  oats  usually  yield  more  than 
three  crops  of  oats  sown  after  Christmas,  fall  sowing  should  be 
more  generally  practiced.  North  of  the  line  indicated  above, 
Turf  oats  are  hardy  in  most  winters,  at  least  as  far  northward  as 
Maryland. 

15.  Soils.  —  The  oat  is  adapted  to  a  wider  range  of  soils 
than  is  wheat.     In  fact,  it  may  be  grown  on  almost  any 
soil  on  which  other  ordinary  field  crops  succeed.     The  low 
yields  of  oats  as  shown  by  statistics  are  largely  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  crop  is  often  sown  on  land  too  poor  for  other 
profitable  use. 

Moreover,  the  oat  crop  is  less  frequently  fertilized  than  are 
the  other  staple  crops.  Land  that  is  too  poor  for  cotton  is 
usually  too  poor  for  oats  sown  after  Christmas,  but  such  land 


14  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

can  often  be  profitably  utilized  by  sowing  oats  in  the  fall  and  fer- 
tilizing in  March  with  nitrate  of  soda. 

One  difficulty  in  growing  Red  Rust-proof  oats  without  fertilizer 
on  poor  and  rocky  land  is  the  fact  that  the  short  straw  made  by 
this  variety  under  such  conditions  makes  it  difficult  to  save  all 
the  heads  in  harvesting  the  crop.  This  difficulty  is  largely  over- 
come by  the  use  of  nitrate  of  soda  and  other  fertilizers  rich  in 
nitrogen. 

Oats  thrive  on  a  moderately  rich  soil,  and  fertility  is  especially 
important  when  sowing  is  done  after  Christmas.  On  land  exces- 
sively rich  in  nitrogen,  and  at  the  same  time  quite  moist,  there  is 
danger  that  the  straw  will  grow  so  tall  and  weak  as  to  fall  or  lodge, 
and  thus  reduce  the  yield.  The  same  danger  may  occur  from 
excessive  use  of  stable  manure  or  other  nitrogenous  fertilizer. 

16.  Place  in  the  rotation.  —  The  usual  position  of  the 
oat  crop  in  a  rotation  in  the  cotton-belt  is  immediately 
after  corn,  the  oats  being  followed  by  cowpeas  the  same 
year,  and  the  cowpeas  being  followed  by  cotton  the  next 
year.  This  is  the  logical  practice  for  fall-sown  oats,  since 
the  corn  crop  can  be  removed  in  October  in  time  for  the 
sowing  of  oats,  while  cotton  is  usually  not  removed 
in  time  for  the  largest  yield  of  fall-sown  oats.  However, 
in  regions  where  spring  sowing  of  oats  is  practiced,  this 
crop  may  just  as  well  follow  cotton  as  follow  corn. 

In  the  usual  practice  of  fall-sowing  of  oats  after  corn,  the  oats 
get  the  advantage  of  the  fertilizer  produced  by  the  cowpeas 
that  are  usually  planted  between  the  rows  of  corn. 

Inquiry  is  sometimes  made  whether  it  may  not  be  practicable 
to  grow  oats  continuously  on  the  same  land  with  a  catch-crop 
of  cowpeas  each  summer,  the  cowpeas  to  be  used  for  hay.  This 
would  be  advisable  only  under  exceptional  conditions  and  when 
phosphoric  acid  and. potash  could  be  restored  to  the  soil  in  the 
fertilizer,  especially  in  the  fertilizer  for  the  cowpea  crop. 


OATS  15 

17.  Fertilizers.  —  Too  frequently  oats  are  sown  on  poor 
land  without  being  fertilized.  Experiments  in  several 
Southern  States  have  shown  that  it  pays  to  fertilize  oats 
growing  on  medium  or  poor  lands.  On  many  of  these 
lands,  acid  phosphate  should  be  used.  This  may  be  ap- 
plied at  the  rate  of  100  to  200  pounds  per  acre  at  the  time 
of  sowing.  It  may  be  run  through  the  fertilizer  attach- 
ment of  the  grain  drill,  and  its  contact  with  the  seed  will 
not  injure  germination.  However,  it  would  not  be  safe 
thus  to  sow  through  the  grain  drill  and  with  the  seed  any 
considerable  amount  of  cotton-seed  meal,  or  other  nitrog- 
enous fertilizer  or  of  potash  salts. 

While  some  sandy  soils  may  require  for  the  maximum 
growth  of  oats  a  small  amount  of  potash,  it  is  not  usually 
necessary  to  apply  this  fertilizer  constituent  to  the  oat 
crop. 

The  most  universal  need  of  oats  on  the  average  soils  of  the 
cotton-belt  is  for  nitrogen.  Since  the  oat  makes  its  growth 
in  the  cooler  part  of  the  year  when  vegetable  matter  does 
not  rapidly  nitrify  or  become  available  as  plant-food,  the 
best  form  of  nitrogenous  fertilizer  is  nitrate  of  soda.  This 
fertilizer  does  not  require  further  change,  but  is  immedi- 
ately available. 

Experiments  have  shown  that  it  is  usually  profitable  to  apply 
any  amount  of  nitrate  of  soda  between  40  and  160  pounds  per 
acre.  About  80  pounds  per  acre  is  usually  advisable.  The 
lumps  should  be  carefully  crushed  and  the  fertilizer  sown  broad- 
cast as  a  top-dressing  at  least  two  months  before  the  average  date 
of  harvest.  As  a  rule,  the  first  half  of  March  is  a  suitable  time 
for  applying  nitrate  of  soda  to  fall-sown  oats,  and  the  latter 
half  of  the  month  for  spring-sown  oats. 

No  covering  of  soil  is  necessary  in  using  nitrate  of  soda,  but  the 


16  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

use  of  a  light  harrow  or  weeder  immediately  after  sowing  the 
fertilizer  would  often  be  advantageous,  especially  if  the  surface 
should  be  quite  dry,  or  if  a  heavy  rain  should  fall  soon  after  the 
application. 

CULTURAL  METHODS  FOR  OATS 

18.  Preparation  of  land.  —  The  usual  preparation  of  the 
land  for  the  oat  crop  is  poorer  than  for  most  other  crops. 
Too  often  the  seed  is  sown  broadcast  on  unplowed  land  and 
then  covered  with  a  one-horse  or  two-horse  turn-plow. 
The  danger  in  this  procedure  is  that  the  seed  may  be 
covered  too  deeply  or  by  large  clods,  either  of  which  pre-  * 
vents  the  germination  of  some  of  the  seeds.     A  method 
that  insures  more  thorough  preparation  is  the  following: 
plowing,  then  sowing  the  seed  broadcast,  and  covering  by 
the  use  of  a  disk-harrow.     A  still  better  method  consists 
in  first  plowing  the  land  and  then  sowing  with  the  grain 
drill. 

Either  of  these  methods  permits  deeper  plowing  than  is 
advisable  when  the  seed  is  covered  with  the  turn-plow. 

On  clean,  friable  soil  oats  are  sometimes  merely  disked 
in  without  plowing.  This  method  is  not  so  well  suited  to 
Southern  soils,  deficient  in  vegetable  matter,  as  it  is  to 
regions  farther  north. 

19.  When  to  sow.  —  Repeated  experiments  have  shown 
that  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  cotton-belt  the  yield 
secured  from  fall-sown  oats  is  at  least  50  per  cent  greater 
than  from  crops  sown  after  Christmas.     Frequently  fall- 
sown  oats  yield  twice  as  much  as  those  sown  in  February. 

The  exact  date  of  planting  that  is  most  likely  to  give  the 
maximum  yield  varies  with  the  latitude  and  climate,  and 
even  with  varieties.  The  earliest  practicable  date  for  fall- 


OATS  17 

sowing  is  in  the  first  half  of  September.  In  the  central 
and  southern  part  of  the  cotton-belt,  this  is  too  early  for 
sowing  Red  Rust-proof  oats,  since  it  tends  to  make  the 
plants  form  stems  and  to  head  too  early  the  latter  part  of 
the  winter,  at  which  stage  the  oat  is  easily  killed  by  freezing 
temperatures.  However,  very  early  sowing  may  be  prac- 
ticed when  the  oats  are  to  be  rather  closely  grazed  through- 
out the  winter. 

The  period  that  is  generally  preferred  for  sowing  Red  oats 
extends  from  October  1  to  the  middle  of  November; 
sowings  made  in  the  earlier  part  of  this  period  usually 
afford  the  larger  yields.  If  sowing  is  postponed  much 
beyond  the  latter  date,  the  young  plants  do  not  have 
time  to  become  firmly  rooted  and  anchored  before  they 
are  subjected  to  heaving  by  the  alternate  freezing  and 
thawing  of  the  soil. 

In  sowing  oats  after  Christmas,  custom  varies  greatly, 
the  usual  limits  being  from  January  1  to  April  1.  In  the 
central  part  of  the  cotton-belt,  probably  the  first  few  weeks 
in  February  is  a  safer  period  than  is  an  earlier  date,  and 
any  delay  after  this  time  is  likely  to  reduce  the  yield 
greatly, 

20.  Drilling  versus  broadcast  sowing.  —  Some  experi- 
ments have  shown  advantage  in  yield  from  sowing  oats 
with  a  grain  drill  as  compared  with  broadcast  sowing. 
Drilling  has  the  advantages:  (1)  of  saving  at  least  half  a 
bushel  of  seed  per  acre;  (2)  placing  the  seed  at  a  more 
uniform  depth,  thus  favoring  uniformity  in  ripening ;  and 
(3)  leaving  the  plants  in  a  very  shallow  depression,  which 
affords  a  slight  degree  of  protection  against  cold  and 
heaving. 


18  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

Extensive  experiments  in  the  cotton-belt  have  proved  that, 
on  an  average,  drilling  affords  a  larger  crop  than  broadcast  sow- 
ing. The  Illinois  Experiment  Station  found  the  smaller  yield 
with  broadcast  oats  to  be  due  in  part  to  the  more  uneven  and 
generally  shallower  depth  at  which  the  seed  were  placed  in  broad- 
cast sowing. 

In  countries  where  it  is  customary  to  sow  red  clover  with  the 
small  grains,  it  has  been  noticed  that  the  clover  is  thriftier  and 
less  injured  by  hot  weather  when  the  rows  made  by  the  grain 
drill  extend  north  and  south  rather  than  east  and  west. 

21.  The  open-furrow  method  of  drilling  oats.  —  This 
consists  in  sowing  the  seed,  not  with  a  two-horse  grain 
drill,  but  with  a  one-horse  planter,  which  deposits  the  seed 
in  the  bottom  of  a  deep  furrow  or  trench  previously  opened 
by  a  large  shovel  plow.  The  seeds  are  barely  covered  by 
the  small  amount  of  soil  which  falls  into  the  trench  as  the 
planter  passes  along.  Therefore,  the  plants  grow  from 
the  bottom  of  a  rather  deep  furrow  which  remains  unfilled 
throughout  the  winter.  Here  they  are  somewhat  protected 
from  cold  and  greatly  protected  from  heaving,  since  the  soil 
and  the  plants  in  the  bottom  of  a  furrow  are  not  easily 
lifted  by  alternate  freezing  and  thawing. 

These  deep  furrows  are  18  to  24  inches  apart.  Fertil- 
izer is  drilled  in  with  the  seed. 

An  incidental  advantage  of  the  open-furrow  method  is  the 
fact  that  it  permits  thorough  harrowing  in  early  spring.  This 
affords  all  the  usual  advantages  of  cultivation  and  partially 
fills  the  open  furrows  so  as  to  make  easier  the  operation  of  the 
binder  or  mower. 

At  the  Alabama  and  Georgia  Experiment  Stations,  this  method 
has  given  larger  yields  than  were  secured  from  broadcast  sowing, 
besides  almost  complete  protection  from  winter-killing.  How- 
ever, this  method  is  not  adapted  to  very  stiff  or  poorly  drained 


OATS  19 

soil.  It  is  also  a  slow  method,  but  the  reported  invention  of  a 
machine  for  sowing  several  rows  at  one  time  may  possibly  over- 
come this  objection. 

22.  Prevention   of   winter-killing.  —  Since  Red    Rust- 
proof oats  are  sometimes  thinned,  or  even  killed  com- 
pletely, by  cold  weather  in  winter,  methods  of  decreasing 
this  injury  are  important.     Oats  are  more  frequently  win- 
ter-killed on  account  of  heaving,  or  lifting  of  the  soil  and  of 
the  young  plants  when  the  ground  freezes,  than  from  the 
direct  effects  of  low  temperatures.     Heaving  is  due  to 
the  expansion  in  freezing  of  the  water  in  the  soil.     Every 
one  has  noticed  on  a  frosty  morning  the  little  icicles  pro- 
jected upward  from  a  spot  of  wet  clayey  land.     Often  these 
icicles  lift  on  their  summits  particles  of  soil.     By  this 
same  process  of  expansion  of    soil-moisture  in  freezing, 
young  plants  are  lifted.     This  heaving  is  worst  in  soils 
that  contain  the  most  water;  that  is,  in  clay  spots  and 
where  the  drainage  is  poor. 

Means  of  decreasing  winter-killing  of  oats  are:  (1)  plant- 
ing in  depressions  or  unfilled  furrows  (the  open-furrow 
system) ;  (2)  improved  drainage ;  (3)  selection  of  hardy 
varieties  or  strains ;  (4)  the  use  of  the  roller  to  settle  the 
lifted  plants  into  closer  contact  with  the  soil. 

23.  Quantity  of  seed.  —  On  account  of  the  ability  of  the 
oat  plant  to  throw  out  an  indefinite  number  of  shoots  or 
culms,  and  thus  to  utilize  whatever  space  may  be  avail- 
able, the  thickness  of  sowing  does  not  directly  determine 
the  rate  of  yield.     From  4  to  16  pecks  to  the  acre  may  be 
taken  as  the  extreme  limits.     The  quantity  of  seed  usu- 
ally advisable  for  broadcast  sowing  is  between   1^  and 
2£  bushels  per  acre.     By  using  the  grain  drill,  this  may 


20  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

be  reduced  by  about  half  a  bushel  per  acre,  and  the  open* 
furrow  method  makes  possible  an  even  greater  reduction. 
The  earlier  the  date  of  sowing  and  the  more  complete  the 
preparation  of  the  land,  the  smaller  may  be  the  quantity  of 
seed  employed. 

24.  Size  of  seed.  —  Scores  of  experiments  have  been 
made  to  determine  the  size  of  seed  or  grain  to  sow  for  the 
best  agricultural  results,  most  of  which   show  a  distinct 
advantage  from  sowing  large  or  heavy  seed. 

Zavitz  secured  the  following  results  (American  Breeders'  As- 
sociation, Vol.  II,  p.  121) :  — 

After  selecting  seed  for  thirteen  years,  the  large  seed  being 
taken  each  year  from  the  plot  sown  with  large  grains,  the  small 
grains  continuously  from  the  plots  sown  with  small  seed,  the  crop 
from  the  large  seed  yielded  65.5  bushels  per  acre  as  compared 
with  44.7  bushels  from  the  small  seed ;  the  crop  from  the  large 
seed  weighed  35.5  pounds  per  bushel  as  compared  with  24.3 
pounds  per  bushel  from  the  continuous  sowing  of  light  seed.  The 
deterioration  due  to  sowing  poor  seed  is  still  better  shown  by  the 
fact  that  the  crop  from  the  large  seed  required  only  1149  grains 
to  weigh  an  ounce  while  that  from  the  light  seed  required  2066 
grains. 

Among  the  publications  summarizing  the  experiments  on  this 
point  are  the  following :  — 

Nebraska  Expr.  Station  Bull.  104. 

Ohio  Expr.  Station  Bull.  38. 

Kansas  Expr.  Station  Bull.  74. 

Canada  Expr.  Farms,  Rpt.  1901. 

Ontario  Agr.  College  and  Expr.  Farms,  Rpt.  1903. 

25.  Separation  of  grains  by  fanning.  —  It  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  there  is  a  tendency  for  any  one  oat 
plant  to  bear  as  many  heavy  seeds  as  light  seeds.     This  is 
because  each  spikelet  usually  matures  one  large  and  one 


OATS  21 

small  grain.  Hence  separation  by  fanning  machines 
tends  to  place  among  the  large  seeds  and  among  the  small 
seeds,  grains  from  the  same  parent  plants.  This  indicates 
that  for  most  rapid  improvement  of  the  oat,  reliance  cannot 
be  placed  chiefly  on  selection  by  the  use  of  the  fanning 
machine,  but  rather  on  the  selection  of  individual  plants. 

However,  seed  oats  should  be  fanned  for  the  following 
reasons:  (1)  to  eliminate  many  grass  and  weed  seeds; 
(2)  to  remove  those  oat  grains  that  are  too  light  to  germi- 
nate or  to  make  vigorous  plants ;  (3)  to  decrease  the  danger 
of  clogging  the  grain  drill  with  broken  straw  and  trash  and 
beards,  especially  in  the  Red  Rust-proof  variety. 

26.  Change  of  seed.  —  There  is  a  widespread  belief 
that  some  indefinite  and  mysterious  advantage  results 
from  changing  the  seed  of  almost  any  crop.  In  the  case  of 
oats,  all  available  evidence  is  against  this  notion  and  seems 
to  indicate  that  the  varieties  do  not  "  run-out,"  or  degen- 
erate, from  being  grown  continuously  in  any  part  of  the 
cotton-belt.  Oats  grown  in  the  locality  where  they  are  to 
be  planted  are  best  for  sowing. 

The  advantages  of  home-grown  seed  are  usually  the  following : 
(1)  A  yield  equal  or  superior  to  that  secured  from  seed  grown 
in  a  different  latitude.  (2)  The  ability  to  select  a  strain  of  seed 
adapted  to  fall  sowing,  whereas  the  seed  obtained  from  other 
localities  is  frequently  from  a  spring-sown  strain,  and  hence  less 
able  to  escape  winter-killing.  •  (3)  Greater  freedom  of  home- 
grown oats  from  admixture  with  seed  of  Johnson-grass  or  noxious 
weeds  that  might  be  introduced  from  abroad. 

In  itself  there  seems  to  be  no  virtue  in  changing  seed.  How- 
ever, a  farmer  should  not  hesitate  to  change  seed  to  procure  an- 
other strain  grown  in  the  same  latitude,  if  his  own  seed  is  espe- 
cially light  or  poor ;  or  if,  by  changing  seed,  he  can  secure  a  better 
or  purer  variety  suited  to  his  soil  or  climate. 


22  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

27.  Cultivation  or  inter-tillage  of  oats.  —  It  is   unusual 
to  till  oats  after  germination  occurs.     It  is  probable  that  in 
the  South,  especially  on  soils  inclined  to  bake,  it  will  be 
generally  advantageous  to  harrow  drilled  oats.     Harrow- 
ing is  seldom  injurious  to  the  stand  of  oats  sown -with  the 
grain  drill  and  not  at  all  hurtful  to  the  stand  of  oats  sown 
in  open  furrows. 

But  few  tests  have  been  made  to  determine  whether  inter- 
tillage  of  small  grains  is  profitable.  At  the  Nebraska  Experiment 
Station  (Bulletin  No.  104)  the  yield  of  oats  sown  with  a  grain 
drill  was  increased  by  harrowing,  in  three  dry  years  out  of  five. 
With  oats  sown  broadcast,  harrowing  reduced  the  yield  every 
year,  because  it  thinned  the  stand.  Drilled  oats,  tilled,  yielded 
more  grain  than  broadcast  oats  without  tillage.  At  the  same 
station  the  yield  on  the  harrowed  plots  decreased  as  the  space 
between  rows  was  widened  from  6  to  12,  18,  and  24  inches. 

28.  Pasturing  oats.  —  During  periods  when  the  soil  is 
so  dry  as  to  be  uninjured  in  its  mechanical  condition  by  the 
tramping  of  live-stock,  there  may  be  no  harm  in  pasturing 
oats  intended  for  grain. 

Cautions  to  be  observed  in  pasturing  any  small  grains 
are :  (1)  Keeping  the  stock  off  the  land  while  wet ;  (2)  dis- 
continuing pasturage  early  enough  to  afford  abundant 
time  for  the  plants  to  tiller  and  head;  (3)  avoidance  of 
pasturing  too  closely  while  there  is  danger  of  severe 
freezes. 

For  oats  sown  rather  early  in  the  fall,  pasturing  may  be 
a  distinct  advantage  in  preventing  the  formation  of  stems 
while  there  is  still  danger  of  freezing  weather,  which  would 
be  especially  injurious  to  oats  in  the  "  booting  "  stage,  that 
is,  after  the  stems  have  begun  to  lengthen  rapidly. 


OATS 


23 


ENEMIES 

29.  Weeds.  —  The  same 
weeds  are  troublesome  in  oats 
as    in   wheat.      Chief    among 
these  is  cheat  or  chess.      The 
use  of  clean  seed,  that  has  been 
carefully  fanned  and  screened, 
is  the  best  means  of  avoiding 
weed  pests. 

In  purchasing  seed  oats,  care 
should  be  taken  that  they  con- 
tain no  seed  of  Johnson-grass. 

30.  Fungous     diseases      of 
oats.  —  Chief  among  diseases 
caused  by  fungi   is  rust,  for 
which  there  is  no  treatment. 
The   Red   Rust-proof  variety 
and  its  various  strains  are  the 
most   rust-resistant   varieties, 
but  even  these  are  not  entirely 
exempt.      Rust   is   worse    in 
damp  weather. 

Oat  smut  (Fig.  8).  —  This 
disease  usually  reduces  the 
yield  of  oats  10  to  20  per  cent. 
Unlike  rust,  it  is  entirely  under 
the  control  of  the  farmer. 
It  appears  as  blackened  heads 
in  which  no  grains  develop, 
but  in  the  place  of  which  are 


FIG.  8.  —  OATS  DESTROYED  BY 
SMUT. 


24  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

conspicuous  masses  of  black,  powdery  material  or  spores. 
These  spores  answer  the  purpose  of  seed  in  carrying  smut 
to  the  next  crop  of  oats.  This  particular  fungus  originates 
from  a  tiny  spore  (or  particle  of  black  dust)  which  has 
found  its  way  during  ripening,  or  harvesting  or  threshing 
to  the  seed  grain.  The  fungus  grows  in  the  form  of  threads 
through  the  entire  length  of  the  oat  plant  and  finally 
bears  what  may  be  called  its  fruit  or  spores  at  the  time  of 
heading. 

To  prevent  smut,  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  destroy  the 
life  of  the  tiny  spore  that  may  have  found  lodgment 
on  the  surface  of  the  seed  grain.  There  are  several 
methods,  the  simplest  and  most  convenient  of  which  is  the 
formalin  treatment,  the  directions  for  which  follow:  — 

For  each  three  gallons  of  water  add  one  ounce  of  formalin. 
With  this  liquid,  wet  or  thoroughly  moisten  the  seed,  either  by 
dipping  the  sacks  of  grain  or  by  thoroughly  sprinkling  the  seed 
while  it  is  being  stirred.  Then  leave  the  damp  seed  in  a  pile 
for  at  least  two  hours,  covering  it  meantime  with  a  sheet,  or 
old  carpet,  which  has  also  been  dipped  in  this  liquid.  The  pur- 
pose in  thus  covering  the  pile  is  to  enable  the  vapors  formed 
by  the  evaporation  of  the  formalin  to  completely  envelop 
every  seed.  Dry  the  oats  before  sowing  them,  and  do  not  let 
them  come  in  contact  with  old  sacks  or  floors  that  have  not  been 
disinfected  with  formalin. 

Another  method  of  entirely  preventing  smut  in  oats  is 
by  the  hot-water  treatment :  — 

Dip  the  bags  of  seed  oats  into  a  vessel  of  water  kept  constantly 
at  a  temperature  of  about  133°  F.  and  always  between  130°  and 
135°.  Keep  the  seed  in  this  hot  water  for  ten  minutes.  It 
may  then  be  cooled  by  being  dipped  in  cold  water,  or  it  may  be 
spread  out  to  dry.  The  temperature  of  the  hot  water  is  most 
conveniently  kept  at  a  constant  point  by  the  addition  of  cold 


OATS 


25 


or  hot  water  as  required,  and  by 
first  heating  the  oats  for  a  few 
minutes  in  warm  water  at  about 
120°  F. ;  for  if  the  cold  seed  were 
dipped  into  water  at  133°,  they  would 
too  rapidly  lower  its  temperature. 
This  method  requires  the  use  of  an 
accurate  thermometer. 

31.  Insect  pests.  —  Insects  are 
the  same  as  those  of  wheat,  ex- 
cept that  the  oat  is  not  attacked 
•by  the  Hessian  fly,  and  that 
granary  insects  do  less  harm  to 
the  oat  grain,  protected  as  it  is 
by  its  enveloping  hull.  A  serious 
pest  of  the  oat  plant  in  the  West 
and  Southwest  is  the  green-bug 
(Toxoptera  graminum,  Fig.  9). 


FIG.  9.  —  GREEN-BUG  (Tox- 
optera graminum)  ;  WING- 
LESS ADULT. 
Greatly  enlarged.      (After 

S.  J.  Hunter.) 


The  green-bug  is  a  plant-louse  of  green  color  and  very  small 
size,  that  sucks  the  juices  from  the  young  plant.     It  has  many 

natural  enemies  which,  after  the 
early  cool  part  of  the  season, 
usually  keep  it  in  subjection. 
One  of  these  enemies,  a  lady-bug 
beetle  (Fig.  10),  has  sometimes 
been  artificially  bred  and  dis- 
tributed as  a  means  of  com- 
bating the  green-bug,  especially 
before  the  weather  has  become 
warm  enough  to  bring  forth 
FIG.  10.  — Two  STAGES  OF  A  LADY-  naturaUy  many  of  the  enemies 

BUG   WHICH    DESTROYS    "GREEN- 

BUGS."  °f  thlS  P6St- 

Right,  adult  beetle  ;  left,  larva.        Another  parasite  on  this  plant- 
Enlarged.    (After  S.  J.  Hunter.)        louse  is  a  tiny  four-winged  insect 


26  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

which  lays  its  eggs  in  the  body  of  the  green-bug,  where  they  hatch 
and  kill  the  host. 

32.  Harvesting   and   marketing.  —  Oat   grains  mature 
from  the  top  of  the  panicle  downward.     Most  of  the  grains 
should  change  color  and  be  in  the  late  dough  stage,  or  riper, 
before  being  harvested  for  grain.     The  harvesting  of  oats 
is  done  with  the  self-binder  or  the  mowing  machine,  or  on 
small  areas  of  rough  land  with  the  grain  cradle. 

It  is  an  advantage  in  threshing  if  the  grain  is  tied  in  bundles,  as 
is  done  by  the  self-binder  or  by  laborers  following  the  cradler. 

Oats  are  marketed  without  any  special  preparation  beyond 
that  of  sacking. 

It  is  customary  in  some  communities  for  oats  to  be  bound  into 
bundles  and  shocked,  left  for  a  week  or  more  in  the  shocks, 
and  then  stored  for  several  weeks  in  a  stack  or  barn  before  being 
threshed;  however,  oats  are  often  handled  directly  from  the 
shock  to  the  threshing  machine.  Damp  or  rainy  weather  during 
threshing  renders  this  operation  slower  and  more  incomplete. 

33.  Yields.  —  For  the  first  few  years  in  the  twentieth 
century  the  world's    oat   crop    averaged   approximately 
3,500,000,000  bushels,  of  which  more  than  one  fourth  was 
produced  in  the  United  States,  on  about  28,000,000  acres. 
The  average  for  the  United  States  is  usually  between  30 
and  35  bushels  per  acre.     This  yield  is  much  below  that 
in  Germany  and  Great  Britain. 

For  oats  sown  in  the  fall  in  the  cotton-belt  a  yield  of 
less  than  20  bushels  may  be  regarded  as  poor ;  of  20  to  30 
bushels  as  fair;  and  a  good  yield  is  one  exceeding  40 
bushels  per  acre. 

A  medium  yield  of  oat  hay  is  about  one  ton  per  acre, 
which  may  be  greatly  increased  by  the  liberal  use  of  nitrate 
of  soda  or  by  sowing  seed  of  hairy  vetch  or  crimson 


OATS 


27 


FIG.  11.  —  GRAINS  GROWN  WITH  CRIMSON  CLOVER  FOR  FORAGE  AT 
ALABAMA  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 

On  left,  oats ;  on  right,  wheat. 


28  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

clover  with   the    seed   oats    in    September   or    Octobei 
(Fig.  11). 

For  oats  sown  after  Christmas  in  the  Gulf  States  the  yields  may 
be  taken  as  not  quite  two  thirds  of  the  figures  for  fall-sown  oats 
on  the  same  land. 

In  several  instances  yields  of  more  than  100  bushels  per  acre 
have  been  reported  in  the  Southern  States. 

At  the  Alabama  Experiment  Station  on  poor,  sandy  loam  soil 
the  yield  averaged  about  one  and  one  half  times  as  many  bushels 
of  fall-sown  oats  as  of  corn  similarly  fertilized.  Considering  that 
oats  weigh  32  pounds  per  bushel,  as  compared  with  56  pounds  per 
bushel  of  corn,  there  was  nearly  an  equal  weight  of  grain  produced 
whether  the  crop  was  corn  or  oats. 

In  the  case  of  a  medium  yield  of  Red  Rust-proof  oats  there  is 
about  one  pound  of  straw  for  each  pound  of  threshed  grain. 
That  is,  a  yield  of  32  bushels  of  oats,  weighing  960  pounds,  is 
usually  accompanied  by  a  yield  of  about  half  a  ton  of  straw, 

34.  Teams  and  labor  for  oat  culture.  —  The  oat  crop 
requires  little  expenditure  for  hand  labor.  Machinery 
and  horse  tools  perform  most  of  the  work.  By  sowing 
oats  in  the  fall,  the  farm  teams  are  kept  employed  at  a 
tune  when,  on  cotton-farms,  there  is  usually  no  large 
amount  of  other  work  for  them.  However,  the  date  of 
harvesting  occurs  during  the  busy  season  when  teams  and 
laborers  are  needed  in  the  early  tilling  of  cotton  and  the 
tillage  of  corn.  Therefore  any  farm  on  which  a  consider- 
able proportion  of  the  acreage  is  devoted  to  oats  should  be 
well  stocked  with  teams  and  so  situated  that  additional 
laborers  can  be  hired  for  a  few  days  during  harvest. 

When  additional  day  labor  cannot  be  hired  to  shock  a 
large  area  of  oats  in  a  brief  time,  the  harvest  season  can 
be  spread  out  over  a  longer  period  by  sowing  a  part  of  the 


OATS  29 

area  in  Red  Rust-proof  oats  and  a  part  in  some  variety 
ripening  either  earlier  or  later. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

Young  plants  in  the  field. 

(1)  From  a  number  of  plants  of  wheat,  oats,  rye,  and  .barley, 
pulled  and  mixed  together,  separate  all  the  oat  plants  by  the  ab- 
sence of  clasps  (auricles)  on  the  leaves.     Repeat  until  young  oat 
plants  are  readily  recognized. 

(2)  With  specimens  used  in  (1)  or  growing  in  the  field,  write 
out  other  means  of  distinguishing  leaves  of  oats  from  those  of  each 
of  the  other  small  grains. 

(3)  Compare  several  varieties  of  oats,  if  available,  as  to  differ- 
ences in  appearance  of  the  young  plants. 

(4)  Dig  four  young  plants  sprung  from  seed  buried  deeply 
and  four  others  from  seed  lightly  covered ;   record  for  each  plant 
of  each  class  the  length  of  that  section  of  root  between  the  parent 
grain  and  the  crown,  or  place  where  most  stems  originate. 

Examination  of  bloom. 

(5)  Pinch  off  the  smaller  flower  in  a  spikelet,  and  treat  the 
larger  as  follows :   With  pin  or  small  forceps  open  the  incurved 
transparent  inner  hull,  or  palet,  before  the  pollen  has  been  shed, 
and  make  a  drawing,  showing  the  number  and  position  of  stamens 
and  stigmas. 

Crossing  oat  flowers. 

(6)  If  practicable  to  execute  No.  (5)  at  8  to  10  A.M.,  practice 
opening  several  flowers  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  least  injury  to  the 
transparent  inner  covering  or  palet ;    when  successful,  remove 
with  a  pin  the  three  unopened  anthers ;    carefully  replace  the 
palet ;   cover  with  a  very  small  paper  bag ;   about  5  in  the  after- 
noon of  the  same  day  reopen  the  same  flower  and  insert  on  the 
stigmas  an  anther  that  shows  loose  grains  of  pollen  ;    replace  the 
palet,  and  a  week  later  note  whether  a  crossed  grain  has  formed. 
Repeat  this  exercise  several  times. 


30  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

Smut. 

(7)  Insert  a  barrel  hoop,  or  sides  of  a  bottomless  box,  over  a 
number  of  oat  plants  in  the  field ;   count  the  number  of  smutted 
and  healthy  heads ;   calculate  the  percentage  of  smutted  heads, 
and  the  apparent  loss  per  acre  from  smut  if  the  yield  of  the  field 
would  have  been  thirty  bushels  per  acre  had  there  been  no 
smut. 

The  oat  panicle  and  stems. 

(8)  Compare  the  form  of  panicle  of  Red  Rust-proof  oats  with 
that  of  Burt  or  Turf  oats. 

(9)  Record  the  number  of  whorls  (sets  of  branches)  and  the 
number  of  spikelets  in  each  of  five  heads  of  oats. 

(10)  Record  the  total  number  of  stems  of  ten  plants  with  abun- 
dant room  and  of  ten  plants  in  a  part  of  the  field  where  the  plants 
are  thick. 

Samples  of  threshed  seed. 

(11)  Carry  out  directions  for  prevention  of  smut  by  the  for- 
malin treatment  (paragraph  30). 

(12)  Practice  the  hot-water  treatment  for  smut. 

(13)  Save  some  seed  in  both  treatments  above  and  make  a  ger- 
mination test,  in  soil  or  in  germinating  box,  of  100  seeds  treated 
with  formalin,  100  with  hot  water,  and  100  not  treated. 

(14)  Make  a  germination  test  of  100  small  seeds  from  upper 
grains  of  spikelets  and  of   100  large  grains,  each  of  the  latter 
being  the  lower  grain  of  its  spikelet ;   notice  results  in  7  or  14 
days   as   to   percentage  of   germinated    seed    and  character  of 
sprouts  or  young  plants.     (In  a  good  sample,  97  per  cent  should 
germinate.) 

(15)  Note  all  differences  between  seeds  of  Red   Rust-proof, 
Burt,  and  Turf  types  of  oats. 

(16)  Make  drawings  of  a  spikelet  of  Red  Rust-proof  freed  of 
chaff,  showing  number  and  position  of  beards.     Do  likewise  for 
some  other  variety. 

(17)  Determine  the  weight  of  a  measured  bushel  of  several 
samples  of  oats,  by  weighing  a  gallon  or  peck. 


OATS  31 

Scoring. 

(18)  Score  as  many  samples  of  threshed  oats  as  practicable, 
by  the  following  score-card  :  — 

1.  Trueness  to  type 15 

2.  Uniformity  of  kernel  in  size  and  shape 10 

3.  Purity  of  color 15 

4.  Cleanliness,  or  freedom  from  weed  seeds,  trash,  etc.   .     .  10 

5.  Seed  condition,  or  germinating  power 15 

6.  Proportion  of  hull 10 

7.  Weight  per  bushel 25 

Total  points 100 

LITERATURE 

Cultural  Methods. 

DUGGAR,  J.  F.    Ala.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  137. 
REDDING,  R.  J.    Ga.  Expr.  Sta.,  Buls.  Nos.  44  and  72. 
TEN  EYCK,  A.  M.,   and   SHOESMITH,  V.  M.    Kan.  Expr.  Sta., 

Bui.  No.  144. 

Composition. 

PETER,  A.  M.    Ky.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  99. 
STORER,  F.  H.    Agriculture  in  its  Relation  to  Chemistry,  Vol. 

II,  p.  400. 

Breeding. 
NORTON,  J.  B.    Am.  Breeders'  Asscn.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  280-285. 

Score-card. 
LYON    and   MONTGOMERY.     Examining   and    Grading   Grains. 

Lincoln,  Neb. 
TEN  EYCK,  A.  M.    Kan.  Agr.  Col.,  1907.     Rules  for  Judging 

and  Grading  Small  Grains. 

Enemies:   Green-bug. 
HUNTER,  S.  J.,  in  Kan.  Bd.  Agr.,  1907. 
U.  S.  Bur.  Entomology,  Bui.  No.  38,  and  Circs.  81,  85,  and  93. 


CHAPTER  II 

WHEAT  —  TRITICUM  SATIVUM 

WHEAT  belongs  to  the  grass  family,  and  is  thus  closely 
related  to  all  the  other  cereal  grains  and  to  the  forage 
grasses.  All  the  various  wheats  are  included  in  the  genus 
Triticum,  which  term  thus  forms  the  first  word  in  the  bo- 
tanical name  of  wheat.  All  kinds  of  wheat  are  annuals. 

Wheat  is  chiefly  used  for  the  manufacture  of  flour. 
From  the  wheat  grain  are  also  made  breakfast  foods,  mac- 
aroni, and  other  articles  for  human  nourishment.  When 
the  price  of  wheat  is  low,  the  grain  is  sometimes  fed  to  all 
classes  of  live-stock.  It  is  especially  prized  as  a  food  for 
poultry. 

The  wheat  plant  affords  valuable  winter  pasturage,  and 
when  cut  before  ripening,  it  makes  hay  of  good  quality. 
For  use  as  hay  a  variety  having  no  beards  is,  of  course, 
preferable.  In  the  southern  parts  of  the  Gulf  States, 
wheat  is  more  valued  for  forage  than  for  grain. 

STRUCTURE  AND  COMPOSITION 

35.  Roots.  —  The  wheat  has  fibrous  roots,  and  in  this 
respect  it  is  entirely  unlike  such  plants  as  the  legumes,  cow- 
peas,  clovers  and  cotton,  which  have  tap-roots.  The  roots 
of  wheat  do  not  extend  so  widely  as  do  those  of  corn  and 
cotton.  The  roots  originate  at  the  crown,  which  is  usually 

32 


WHEAT  33 

within  an  inch  of  the  surface  of  the  ground,  whatever  may 
have  been  the  depth  of  planting. 

However,  before  the  crown  and  the  main  or  permanent 
system  of  roots  are  formed,  three  short  temporary  roots 
develop  from  the  sprouted  grain ;  thus  the  depth  of  these 
temporary  roots  depends  upon  the  depth  of  planting. 
They  serve  no  further  use  after  the  development  of  the 
numerous  permanent  roots  originating  chiefly  at  the  crown. 
Hence,  the  depth  at  which  the  wheat  roots  and  feeds  is 
independent  of  the  depth  at  which  the  seed  is  sown. 

36.  Stems.  —  The  stems  or  culms  of  wheat  are  hollow, 
with  closed  or  solid  joints.  The  usual  height  is  three  to 
five  feet.  When  the  straw  grows  to  great  length,  there  is 
danger  that  the  plant  may  "  lodge  "  (fall),  thus  interfering 
with  the  perfect  development  of  the  grain  and  making  har- 
vesting difficult  and  incomplete.  As  a  rule,  wheat  grows 
taller  than  barley  and  not  so  tall  as  rye.  The  weight  of 
straw  is  usually  nearly  twice  the  weight  of  grain,  but  it  may 
vary  widely  from  this. 

A  single  wheat  grain  may  give  rise  directly  to  a  single 
culm  and  indirectly  to  a  score  or  more  of  stems,  as  explained 
below.  The  buds  at  the  lower  nodes  (joints)  of  each  culm 
may  themselves  develop  into  additional  culms,  and  from 
the  lower  nodes  of  these  still  other  stems  may  spring.  This 
formation  of  culms  from  lower  buds  at  the  underground 
nodes  of  each  stem  explains  how  and  why  wheat  and  other 
small  grains  tiller;  that  is,  they  produce  a  number  of 
stems  from  a  single  seed.  The  greater  the  space  between 
plants  and  the  greater  the  rainfall  and  supply  of  plant- 
food,  the  greater  is  the  number  of  culms  from  a  single 
crown. 

D 


34  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

37.  Leaves.  —  The  leaves  of  wheat  vary  in  width,  and 
even  in  the  shade  of  green.     As  a  rule,  they  are  narrower 

than  the  leaves  of  barley  and 
oats.  Young  wheat  plants  of 
the  species  usually  cultivated  in 
the  United  States  (Triticum 
sativum)  may  be  distinguished 
easily  from  those  of  the  other 
small  grains  by  the  two  small 
clasps  (auricles)  that  partly  en- 
circle the  stem  where  the  blade, 
or  free- part  of  each  leaf,  unites 
with  the  sheath  (Fig.  12).  In 

FIG.   12. -PART  OF  A  YOUNG   the    y°unS    wheat  .P1^    these 

WHEAT  PLANT.  clasps  bear  on  their  margins  a 

Showing  clasps  bordered  with  few  very    inconspicuous    hairs. 

No  hairs  occur  on  the  larger 

clasps  of  barley  nor  on  the  smaller  auricles  of  rye.     Oats 
have  no  auricles. 

Young  plants  of  the  four  small  grains,  therefore,  may  be  dis- 
tinguished by  the  following  leaf  characters,  as  well  as  by  others  :  — 

Oats  have  no  auricles  or  clasps  (Fig.  1). 

Rye  has  very  small  auricles  (Fig.  23). 

Barley  leaves  are  provided  with  large  auricles  (Fig.  28). 

Wheat  has  auricles  intermediate  in  size  between  those  of  rye 
and  barley,  and  on  the  outer  margin  of  each  auricle  on  American 
wheats  are  a  few  hairs  (Fig.  12). 

38.  Pollination. — Although  wanting  in  showy  colors,  the 
part  from  which  each  wheat  grain  develops  is  a  true  flower. 
On  carefully  opening  the  husk-like  inclosing  parts  in  a  newly 
formed  head  of  wheat,  within  each  flower  are  found  three 


WHEAT 


35 


FIG.  13.  —  FLORET  OP 

WHEAT. 

Showing  two  stigmas  and 
two  of  the  three  anthers. 


stamens,  which  soon  afford  the  yellow  powder  or  pollen. 

There  is  also  a  pair  of  small  glistening  plumes  (Fig.  13), 

corresponding  to  the  silks  in  corn. 

These  are  the  stigmas  or  divisions 

of  the  pistil,  and  in  these  delicate 

plumes  the  pollen  must  lodge  and 

grow  before  a  seed  can  form. 

The  plume-like  stigmas  are 
snugly  inclosed  by  the  chaff,  thus 
preventing  the  access  of  any  pollen 
except  that  which  develops  within 
the  same  flower.  Hence  wheat  is  a 
self-pollinated  plant.  Therefore, 
two  varieties  of  wheat  sown  side 
by  side  do  not  cross  or  mix,  unless  the  seed  be  mechanically 
mixed  by  careless  handling. 

Two  varieties  of  wheat  can  be  crossed  or  hybridized  by 
removing  the  pollen-cases  (anthers)  before  they  burst,  and 
then,  a  little  later,  by  applying  to  the  stigmas  pollen 
from  a  plant  on  which  the  anthers  have  just  set  free 
the  pollen.  The  best  time  for  hybridizing  wheat  is  before 
daybreak. 

39.  The  spike  and  the  spikelets.  —  " Spike"  is  the  name 
given  to  the  entire  head  of  wheat,  and  spikelet  is  the  name 
of  a  group  of  flowers  or  grains  springing  from  the  same 
place  on  the  stem.  The  head  or  spike  is  borne  at  the  top 
of  each  completely  developed  stem  or  straw.  In  wheat 
there  is  only  one  spikelet,  or  flower-cluster,  at  each  node  or 
joint.  The  spikelets  are  arranged  alternately  on  the  zigzag 
stem  (or  rachis) .  The  spikelets  are  arranged  flatwise  to  the 
stem. 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


The  shape  of  the  spike  differs  in  certain  species  and  va- 
rieties of  wheat  and  may  be  (1)  tapering,  or  (2)  nearly 
uniform  in  size,  or  (3)  'club-shaped  (that  is,  decidedly 

largest  at  the  extreme 
upper  end)  (Fig.  17).  The 
shape  of  the  spike  or  head 
depends  largely  on  the  size 
to  which  the  spikelets  in 
different  parts  of  the  spike 
develop. 

Comprising  each  spikelet 
are  usually  three  or  more 
flowers  (Fig.  14).  From 
them,  when  all  conditions 
are  favorable,  may  develop 
three  grains.  More  fre- 
quently, only  two  flowers 
develop,  and  the  spikelet 
yields  only  two  grains, 
sometimes  only  one.  A 
crop  with  "  three  grains 
to  the  mesh,"  as  some 
farmers  express  it,  should 
make  a  large  yield. 

In  some  varieties,  beards 
project  from  the  tips  of 
certain  of  the  chaff-like 
parts  which  inclose  the  seed. 
It  has  not  been  proved 

FIG.  14.-A  HEAD,  SPIKELET,  AND    that    bearded    varieties    of 

GRAIN  OF  BEARDED  WHEAT.        wheat  are  any  hardier  or 


WHEAT 


37 


any  more  productive  in  the  South  than  beardless  varieties 
(which  are  also  known  as  "  smooth  "  or  "  bald  "  wheats) 
(Fig.  15).  On  farms  where  it  is  some- 
times desirable  to  utilize  at  least  a  part 
of  the  wheat  crop  for  hay,  beardless 
varieties  are  decidedly  preferable,  and 
also  probably  just  as  good  when  the 
sole  aim  is  the  production  of  grain. 

40.  The  grain.  —  When  wheat  is 
threshed,  the  grain  is  freed  from  the 
chaff  that  has  enfolded  it.  The  same 
is  true  of  rye.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  hull  of  oats  continues  to  enfold 
the  grain  after  threshing,  and  in  barley 
the  hull  grows  fast  to  the  grain. 

A  single  grain  of  wheat  is  usually 
about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long.  A 
deep  furrow  or  crease  extends  nearly 
the  length  of  the  grain  on  the  side 
opposite  the  germ  or  embryo.  The 
greater  depth  of  this  furrow,  together 
with  the  shorter,  plumper  grain  (Fig. 
16),  readily  distinguish  a  wheat  kernel 
from  a  grain  of  rye. 

In  color  wheat  grains  vary  from  a  pIG  15.— A  TYPICAL 

light,    almost     creamy    yellow     (called       HEAD  OF  BEARDLESS 

white)  through  an  amber  tint  to  dark 
red.      Red  and    amber-colored    wheats   are  more   com- 
monly grown  in  the  South  than  those  of    the   lighter 
shades,  and  probably  the  former  are  hardier  under  South- 
ern conditions. 


38 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


The  kernel  of  wheat  is  divided  into  three  principal  parts : 
(1)  the  germ,  or  embryo  ;  (2)  the  starchy  part,  or  endosperm ; 
(3)  the  several  outer  layers  constituting  the  bran.  The  germ, 
which  may  be  located  by  a  tiny  scar,  constitutes  only  a  very 

small  proportion  of  the 
grain,  occupying  only 
about  one  thirteenth 
as  much  space  as  the 
endosperm.  The 
starchy  portion,  or 
endosperm,  is  the  part 
from  which  flour  is 
made.  This  is  a  re- 
serve supply  of  food 
material  stored  by  the 
maturing  plant  for  the 
nourishment  of  the 
young  seedling  be- 
fore the  roots  of  the 
latter  are  able  to  fur- 
nish a  full  supply  of 
plant-food.  The  bran 
consists  of  several 
coats,  the  outer  of 
which  corresponds 
botanically  to  the  pod 
that  covers  a  pea  or 
bean. 

Wheat  grains  are  of 
such  size  that  usually 
from  500,000  to  1 ,000,- 
FIG.  16.  —  A  GOOD  SAMPLE  OF  WHEAT.          000  are  contained  in  a 

bushel,     though     the 

number  is  occasionally  below  and  sometimes  above  these  limits. 
The  legal  weight  of  a  bushel  of  wheat  is  60  pounds,  but  a  measured 
bushel  often  weighs  several  pounds  less,  and  sometimes  a  few 
pounds  more  than  the  standard. 


WHEAT  39 

41.  Composition.  —  In  round  numbers,  the  entire  wheat 
grain  has  the  following  average  composition:  — 

PER  CENT 

Water 10.5 

Gluten  and  other  nitrogenous  constituents  (protein)    .     .    12.0 

Fats,  etc a  little  more  than     2.0 

Crude  fiber a  little  less  than     2.0 

Ash a  little  less  than     2.0 

Starch  and  other  nitrogen-free  extract    .     .  more  than     71.5 

Total 100.0 

The  higher  the  percentage  of  protein  in  normally  ma- 
tured wheat  grains  the  higher,  as  a  rule,  are  the  quality  and 
breadmaking  value  of  the  wheat.  The  protein  is  often  as 
much  as  2  per  cent  either  above  or  below  the  average 
just  given,  and  still  greater  extremes  in  composition  some- 
times occur,,  Any  climatic  or  other  condition  that  prevents 
the  complete  maturity  of  the  wheat  into  plump  grains 
tends  to  reduce  the  proportion  of  starch,  which  is  the  ma- 
terial last  to  be  added  to  the  grain ;  this  reduction  in  the 
percentage  of  starch  naturally  raises  the  percentage  of  ni- 
trogen. It  has  been  found  at  the  Tennessee  Experiment 
Station  (Bui.,  Vol.  XVI,  No.  4)  that  wheat  grown  in  the 
South  contains  a  high  percentage  of  protein.  Hard  grains, 
which  present  a  horny  appearance,  are  usually  richer  in 
protein  than  those  which  have  a  less  flinty  appearance. 

Gluten,  the  principal  nitrogenous  constituent  in  wheat, 
is  not  only  prized  for  its  high  nutritive  value,  but  also 
because  to  its  presence  is  due  the  "  rising  power  "  possessed 
by  wheat  flour  as  compared  with  flour  or  meal  from  Indian 
corn.  Gluten  is  the  sticky  residue  left  in  the  mouth  when 
one  chews  unground  wheat  grains.  The  favorable  action 
of  this  sticky  gluten  in  making  flour  bread  to  rise,  or  to 


40  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 

become  "  light,"  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  gluten  entangles 
and  holds  in  the  dough  the  bubbles  of  carbonic  acid  gas 
formed  by  fermentation  when  yeast  is  added  to  dough. 

SPECIES  AND  VARIETIES 

42.  Species  and  subspecies.  —  The  genus  Triticum,  to 
which  all  forms  of  wheat  belong,  includes  eight  species  or 
subspecies.  Only  one  of  these  is  generally  cultivated  in 
the  South,  namely,  the  winter-growing  form  of  common 
wheat  (Triticum  sativum  vulgare).  Spring  wheat  is  un- 
suited  to  the  South. 

Macaroni  wheat  (Triticum  durum)  is  adapted  to  a  semiarid 
climate.  At  least  one  of  its  varieties,  under  the  name  of  Nica- 
ragua wheat,  has  been  successfully  grown  in  the  drier  portions 
of  Texas.  Macaroni  wheat  in  that  climate  makes  a  large 
yield  of  grain,  which  is  suitable  either  for  the  manufacture  of 
macaroni  or  vermicelli,  or  for  stock  food.  Macaroni  wheat  is 
bearded.  In  its  early  growth  it  is  more  erect,  and  the  plant  is 
less  inclined  to  stool  or  tiller  than  common  wheat. 

Other  forms  of  wheat,  not  grown  in  the  South,  are  the  follow- 
ing:— 

Club  wheat  is  the  favorite  kind  in  Oregon  and  Washington 
(Fig.  17). 

Spelt  is  one  form  in  which  the  chaff  clings  to  the  grains  after 
threshing. 

Emmer  is  useful  for  its  resistance  to  drought  and  to  rust,  and  is 
especially  promising  as  a  forage  plant  in  the  semiarid  Northwest. 
It  seems  to  be  unpromising  for  the  South  because  most  of  the 
varieties  require  sowing  after  winter  has  passed. 

Poulard  wheat  is  closely  related  to  macaroni  wheat, 

Branching  wheat  is  so  named  because  the  head  is  branched. 
In  this  class  belongs  the  variety  recently  advertised  under  the 
name  of  Alaska  wheat,  which  has  generally  proved  an  inferior 
kind. 


WHEAT 


41 


Polish  wheat  is 
characterized  by 
very  large  kernels. 
It  is  not  suitable 
for  breadmaking, 
but  for  the  manu- 
facture of  maca- 
roni. 

One-grained 
wheat  (einkorn) 
is  another  un- 
promising kind. 

43.  Varieties 
ofwinterwheat. 
—  Although 
more  than  a 
thousand  vari- 
eties of  wheat 
are  known, 
those  exten- 
sively grown  in 
the  cotton-belt 
are  probably 
less  than  a 
score  in  num- 
ber. Among  FlG-  17'-  HEADS  OF  WHEAT" 

,,  On  left,  Golden  Chaff;    in  center,  Currell ;    on 

the  most  pop-    right>  club. 
ular    and    pro- 
ductive varieties  are  the  following:  — 

Blue  Stem  or  Purple  Straw.  —  This  is  so  named 
because  of  the  purplish  tint  on  the  upper  part  of  the 
ripened  straw.  It  is  beardless,  and  hence  suitable  for 


42 


SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 


hay  as  well  as  for  grain.     When  the  seeds  are  continu- 
ously grown  in  the  South,  it  is  one  of  the  earliest  varie- 


FIG.  18.  —  HEADS  OF  WHEAT. 

On  left,  Fultz,  then  Blue  Stem ;  on  extreme  right,  Fulcaster,  next  to 
which  is  Club. 


WHEAT  43 

ties.  The  grain  is  amber-colored  or  reddish,  and  of 
medium  size. 

Fultz  (Fig.  18).  —  This  variety  is  widely  grown  in  the 
South.  It  is  practically  beardless,  though  very  short  beards 
are  found  in  the  upper  part  of  the  head  on  a  few  of  the 
glumes,  or  chaffy  parts.  It  may  be  used  for  hay  as  well  as 
for  grain. 

Red  May.  —  An  early  beardless  variety. 

Fulcaster  (Fig.  18).  —  A  bearded  variety  widely  grown 
in  the  Southland  generally  found  to  be  comparatively 
hardy  and  productive. 

44.  Most  productive  varieties  of  wheat. — There  is  no 
one  variety  of  wheat  that  is  best  for  all  seasons  and  for 
all  localities  in  the  South.     This  explains  why  variety  tests 
present  such  different  results  in  different  years. 

In  experiments  made  at  the  Test  Farms  in  North  Caro- 
lina, during  several  years,  Golden  Chaff,  Bearded  Fulcaster, 
and  Improved  Amber  were  among  the  most  productive 
varieties. 

At  the  Alabama  Experiment  Station,  a  local  strain  of 
Blue  Stem  has  been  the  earliest  and  one  of  the  most  pro- 
ductive varieties  tested.  Fulcaster  has  also  made  good 
yields  of  grain. 

At  the  Oklahoma  Station,  Sibley's  New  Golden  was  one 
of  the  best  varieties.  This  is  a  bearded  variety  with  soft 
grains.  At  the  same  station  good  yields  were  also  made  by 
Blue  Stem  and  Fulcaster,  and  by  some  of  the  hard  wheats, 
including  among  others,  Turkey  Red.  (Okla.  Expr.  Sta., 
An.  Rpt.,  1908-1909.) 

45.  Means   of  distinguishing  varieties. — Varieties  are 
distinguished  by  the  presence  or  absence  of  beards ;  by  the 


44  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

color  of  grain ;  by  the  color  of  chaff ;  by  the  presence  oi 
absence  of  hairs  ("  velvet  ")  on  the  chaff ;  by  the  height 
of  straw;  by  the  time  of  maturity;  and  by  other  char- 
acters. Hence,  it  is  evident  that  a  variety  cannot  be  iden- 
tified merely  by  an  inspection  of  the  grain  itself.  Indeed, 
positive  identification  of  the  variety  is  almost  impossible, 
even  when  the  mature  plants  are  examined  in  the  field. 
Yet  it  is  important  that  growers  keep  each  variety  pure,  to 
insure  uniformity  in  ripening  and  in  quality  of  grain,  and 
in  order  to  propagate  only  the  best  varieties. 

46.  Qualities  desired  in  varieties  for  the  South.  —  The 
qualities  chiefly  desired  in  varieties  of  wheat  for  the  South 
are  the  following :  — 

(1)  High  yield. 

(2)  Rust-resistance,  and  earliness,  as  a  means  of  mini- 
mizing the  injury  from  rust. 

(3)  Resistance  to  drought,  though  marked  differences 
in  this  respect  among  American  varieties  have  not  been 
demonstrated. 

(4)  More  than  the  average  percentage  of  protein,  and 
good  quality  of  the  flour  produced. 

47.  Improvement  of  varieties.  —  Wheat  can  readily  be 
improved  by  selecting  for  seed  the  best  individual  plants ; 
for  example,  those  affording  a  larger  yield  than  other  plants 
having  an  equal  amount  of  space  and  fertilizer,  or  those 
most  resistant  to  rust,  or  the  earliest  productive  plants. 
Improvement  will  be  more  rapid  if  farmers  specially  in- 
terested in  breeding  up  their  wheat  would  set  apart  small 
areas,  for  use  as  breeding  nurseries,  where  the  seed  from 
each  selected  plant  could  be  sown  in  a  separate  row.     The 
seed  from  the  best  of  these  rows  should  be  planted  the  next 


WHEAT  45 

year  on  a  larger  area.  By  the  third  year,  there  should  be 
enough  seed  to  plant  a  small  field. 

In  selecting  for  rapid  improvement,  it  is  much  more 
important  to  choose  the  best  plants  than  to  pick  out  the 
largest  grains  or  the  best  single  heads. 

Hand  selection  of  the  best  plants,  even  without  separate 
breeding  rows,  will  improve  the  variety  and  increase  the 
yield.  Hunt  expresses  the  belief  that  the  most  promising 
means  of  increasing  the  yield  is  by  selecting  to  increase  the 
number  of  spikelets  on  a  spike.  Breeding  should  also  be 
directed  towards  increasing  the  size  of  grain  and  the  re- 
sistance to  rust.  (See  58.) 

SOILS,  ROTATION,  AND  FERTILIZERS 

48.  Soils.  —  Wheat  thrives  better  on  a  clay  or  loam 
soil  than  on  one  that  is  sandy.  Most  suitable  of  all  is  a 
lime  soil,  if  it  also  contains  considerable  clay. 

Wheat  does  not  thrive  on  acid  soils.  Hence,  the  acid  areas  so 
often  found  among  the  sandy  soils  of  the  Gulf  States  should  be 
avoided  for  this  crop,  or  else  limed  with  from  1000  to  1500  pounds 
of  slacked  lime  per  acre  as  a  preparation  for  wheat.  Liming 
is  best  done  through  the  grain  drill,  several  weeks  before  the  seed 
are  planted.  When  applied  on  the  surface,  lime  should  be  well 
harrowed  in. 

In  choosing  a  field  for  wheat,  wet,  undrained  spots  should  be 
avoided.  The  crop  is  less  likely  to  suffer  severely  from  rust  if 
grown  on  upland  than  if  sown  on  lowland  completely  surrounded 
by  higher  land  and  from  which  field  there  is  consequently  no  air 
drainage.  Yet,  bottom  lands  of  suitable  character  in  favorable 
years  afford  large  yields  of  wheat. 

In  the  northern  part  of  most  of  the  Gulf  States  are  found  many 
soils  suitable  for  wheat,  after  they  have  been  somewhat  improved 


46  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CHOPS 

by  the  addition  of  vegetable  matter.  Among  such  soils  may  be 
especially  noted  the  limestone  valleys,  and  also  the  reddish  clay 
or  clay-loam  soils  of  the  Piedmont  region  or  foothills,  the  latter 
being  designated  in  the  soil  survey  reports  as  belonging  to  the 
Cecil  series  of  soils. 

Likewise,  the  waxy  lime  lands  of  central  Alabama,  north- 
eastern Mississippi,  and  of  Texas,  offer  suitable  conditions  for  the 
growth  of  wheat  when  sufficient  vegetable  matter  is  incorporated 
with  the  soil.  On  all  of  these  and  on  many  Southern  soils,  now 
seldom  or  never  utilized  for  wheat,  this  crop  should  become 
an  important  one  when  the  presence  of  the  boll  weevil  or  other 
incentive  shall  make  imperative  a  more  diversified  agriculture. 
Wheat  needs  a  rich  or  fairly  rich  soil.  More  economical  than 
the  use  of  most  forms  of  commercial  fertilizer  is  the  improvement 
of  the  soil  for  wheat  by  a  preceding  crop  of  cowpeas  or  of  other 
legumes.  This  is  the  cheapest  means  of  adding  nitrogen,  the 
most  expensive  plant-food  purchased  in  commercial  fertilizers. 
The  preceding  crop  of  legumes  should  be  fertilized  with  acid 
phosphate,  so  as  to  enable  the  legumes  to  make  a  more  luxuriant 
growth  and  thus  to  add  to  the  soil  a  larger  amount  of  nitrogen 
than  would  be  possible  if  this  crop  had  been  grown  without 
fertilizer.  If  the  preceding  crop  of  cowpeas  is  luxuriant,  it 
will  often  suffice  to  plow  under  merely  the  stubble  as  a  fertilizer 
for  wheat,  utilizing  the  tops  of  the  legume  for  hay. 

Among  the  legumes  that  may  be  used  to  fit  the  land  for  a 
profitable  crop  of  wheat  are  the  following :  cowpeas  and  soybeans, 
as  summer  growing  legumes,  on  any  soils ;  red  clover  on  lime  soils ; 
sweet  clover  (Melilotus  alba)  on  the  waxy  lime  soils  ;  and  crimson 
clover,  a  winter-growing  annual  that  is  adapted  to  almost  any 
soil  suitable  for  wheat. 

49.  Place  in  the  rotation.  —  In  the  cotton-belt,  the 
crop  preceding  wheat  is  usually  [cowpeas,  either  grown 
alone  or  as  a  catch-crop  between  rows  of  corn.  It  is  not 
unusual  for  a  growth  of  cowpeas  to  add  4  to  10  bushels  of 
wheat  per  acre  to  the  yield  of  the  following  wheat  crop. 


WHEAT 


47 


In  those  parts  of  the  South  where  red  clover  is  grown, 
a  good  three-year  rotation  is :  — 

First  year :   wheat,  with  red  clover  seed. 

Second  year:   red  clover. 

Third  year:   corn. 

Wheat  is  again  grown  the  fourth  year. 

Where  neither  red  clover  nor  cotton  succeeds,  crimson 
clover  may  be  used  instead  of  red  clover,  as  follows :  — 

First  year:  late  corn,  cultivated  late,  and  the  middles 
seeded  to  crimson  clover  in  September. 

Second  year:  tobacco,  late  corn,  or  other  summer  crop 
not  requiring  early  planting. 

Third  year:   wheat,  followed  by  cowpeas. 

In  those  parts  of  the  cotton-belt  where  red  clover  does 
not  thrive,  the  following  four-year  rotation  is  often  desir- 
able :  — 

First  year:  cotton,  with  crimson  clover  seeded  in 
September  between  the  rows. 

Second  year :    cotton. 

Third  year:    corn,  with  cowpeas  between  the  rows. 

Fourth  year:    wheat,  followed  by  cowpeas. 

50.  Fertilization.  —  A  crop  of  25  bushels  of  wheat,  with 
its  accompaniment  of  say  2500  pounds  of  straw,  removes 
from  the  land  approximately  the  following  amounts  of 
plant-food :  — 


IN  GRAIN 

IN  STRAW 

IN  GRAIN  AND  STRAW 

Nitrogen  

259 

108 

26  7 

Phosphoric  acid  .  .  . 
Potash  

14.4 
5.3 

3.3 
18.5 

17.7 
23.8 

48  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

These  figures  indicate  that  the  grain  depletes  the  land  oi 
considerable  quantities  of  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid, 
while  the  straw  removes  a  large  quantity  of  potash  and  also 
considerable  nitrogen.  The  straw,  after  being  used  as 
food  or  bedding,  should  be  restored  to  the  farm  in  the  form 
of  manure.  This,  however,  will  usually  not  be  applied  to 
the  field  from  which  the  straw  was  taken. 

Phosphoric  acid  is  very  generally  deficient  in  Southern 
soils.  Phosphate  is  the  fertilizer  usually  applied  to  wheat. 
Two  hundred  to  four  hundred  pounds  per  acre  may  well 
be  employed.  The  time  to  apply  acid  phosphate  to 
wheat  is  at  the  time  of  sowing  the  grain.  It  may  be  sown 
through  the  fertilizer  attachment  of  the  grain  drill  and 
while  the  seed  is  being  sown.  The  germination  is  not  in- 
jured by  phosphate  in  contact  with  the  seed. 

Since  wheat  makes  most  of  its  growth  during  the  cooler 
part  of  the  year,  while  decay  and  nitrification  are  least  ac- 
tive, this  plant  responds  profitably  to  applications  of  nitrog- 
enous fertilizers.  For  the  reason  just  indicated  the  most 
readily  soluble  form  of  nitrogen,  namely,  nitrate  of  soda, 
is  usually  the  most  effective  form  in  which  to  convey  at 
least  a  part  of  the  supply  of  nitrogen  to  the  wheat  plant 
(Fig.  19).  On  account  of  its  ready  solubility,  nitrate  of 
soda  should  not  be  applied  until  winter  is  past  and  the 
plants  have  a  well-developed  root  system  ready  to  appropri- 
ate the  soluble  nitrates.  It  is  well  to  apply  nitrate  of  soda 
at  least  two  months  before  the  date  of  anticipated  harvest. 

This  usually  means  that  in  the  Gulf  States  nitrate  of  soda 
should  be  used  by  or  before  the  twentieth  of  March,  or  in  higher 
latitudes  at  proportionately  later  dates  ;  80  pounds  per  acre  is  the 
amount  most  generally  advisable,  —  though  profitable  use  can 


WHEAT 


49 


often  be  made  of  amounts  smaller  or  larger  by  50  per  cent.  Ni- 
trate of  soda  should  be  very  uniformly  sown,  after  all  lumps 
have  been  pulverized.  No  covering  is  required,  but  when  harrow- 
ing can  be  done  without  serious  injury  to  the  stand  of  plants,  it 


FIG.  19.  —  SHOCKS  OP  WHEAT  FROM  EQUAL  AREAS. 

On  left,  fertilized  with  nitrate  of  -soda ;  on  right,  no  nitrogen  in  the 
fertilizer. 

will  often  be  helpful,  both  as  a  means  of  hastening  the  absorption 
of  the  nitrate  of  soda  and  also  for  its  effects  as  a  cultivation. 

It  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  application  of  very 
large  amounts  of  nitrogen  in  any  form,  even  in  barnyard  manure, 
may  cause  the  straw  to  grow  so  tall  and  weak  that  it  may  fall, 
or  lodge.  The  application  of  phosphate  and  kainit  is  believed 
to  have  a  tendency  to  strengthen  the  straw  and  to  reduce  the 
danger  of  lodging. 

Formerly  when  cotton-seed  was  worth  less  than  twelve 
dollars  per  ton,  it  was  largely  used  as  a  fertilizer  for  wheat. 
Cotton-seed  was  plowed  in  when  the  wheat  was  sown,  and 
its  use,  especially  when  combined  with  acid  phosphate, 
was  effective.  Cotton-seed  is  now  in  most  localities  too 


50  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

high-priced  to  be  used  as  a  fertilizer  for  wheat  in  competi- 
tion with  cotton-seed  meal  or  nitrate  of  soda. 

Cotton-seed  meal  is  a  common  ingredient  of  a  fertilizer 
mixture  for  wheat.  It  is  usually  less  effective  and  eco- 
nomical for  wheat  than  an  equal  value  of  nitrate  of  soda. 
When  cotton-seed  meal  is  used,  it  should  be  applied  before 
the  wheat  is  sown,  and  the  seed  should  not  be  permitted  to 
come  in  contact  with  it,  since  the  meal,  in  its  decay,  has  an 
unfavorable  effect  on  the  germinating  seed.  Hence,  to 
avoid  injuring  the  stand,  no  considerable  amount  of  cotton- 
seed meal  should  be  applied  while  the  seed  are  being  drilled 
in.  The  meal  may  be  first  drilled  in,  or  sown  broadcast 
and  harrowed  in,  and  then  the  seed  sown.  The  same  cau- 
tion may  well  be  exercised  when  the  fertilizer  contains  any 
considerable  amount  of  kainit,  or  muriate  of  potash,  dried 
blood,  or  tankage. 

Most  fertilizer  tests  show  smaller  gains  from  the  use  of  potash, 
as  a  fertilizer  for  wheat  than  from  the  use  of  nitrogen  or  phos- 
phoric acid.  For  soils  not  in  the  best  condition  for  wheat  the 
following  formula  will  often  prove  profitable :  — 

200  pounds  acid  phosphate  per  acre  and 
25  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  (when  the  seed  are  sown). 
100  pounds  nitrate  of  soda  (early  in  March). 

In  case  the  preceding  crop  is  cowpeas,  the  nitrate  of  soda  may 
be  reduced  or  omitted. 

The  cowpea  plants,  which  usually  follow  wheat,  may  utilize 
some  of  the  phosphate  not  used  by  the  grain  crop. 

CULTURAL  METHODS 

51.  Preparation  of  land.  —  Wheat  requires  a  carefully 
prepared  seed-bed,  moderately  compact  in  the  lower  layers 
and  loose  and  fine  near  the  surface.  In  order  to  permit  the 


WHEAT  51 

soil  to  settle  or  become  moderately  compacted  by  rain, 
plowing  for  wheat  should  be  done,  if  practicable,  at  least 
several  weeks  before  the  anticipated  date  of  sowing  the 
seed.  In  Oklahoma  it  has  been  found  advantageous 
to  plow  for  wheat  as  early  as  midsummer.  Plowing 
three  to  six  weeks  before  seeding  is  often  advisable; 
but  when  wheat  follows  catch-crops  of  cowpeas,  it  is 
often  necessary  to  sow  it  soon  after  plowing  under  the 
cowpea  stubble  'and  to  rely  upon  harrowing  and  rolling 
to  compact  the  soil.  Immediately  after  plowing  and 
before  the  upturned  soil  has  dried  into  clods,  the  field 
should  be  harrowed.  Harrowing  should  be  repeated 
at  such  intervals  between  the  dates  of  plowing  and 
sowing  as  to  prevent  the  formation  of  a  crust  or  the 
growth  of  vegetation. 

If  no  rain  falls  near  the  time  of  plowing,  it  will  be  advisable 
to  employ  the  roller  or  plank  drag  in  addition  to  the  harrow,  in 
compacting  and  pulverizing  the  seed-bed  for  wheat.  In  case  the 
soil  is  excessively  dry,  it  may  be  necessary  to  use  *iie  roller  after 
sowing  the  seed,  to  enable  moisture  from  the  subsoil  to  be  con- 
veyed more  easily  by  capillary  attraction  through  the  rolled  soil 
to  the  seeds,  which,  by  means  of  the  roller,  are  pressed  into  close 
contact  with  the  particles  of  soil. 

However,  the  same  compactness  that  makes  it  easier  for  the 
moisture  in  the  rolled  soil  to  rise  from  the  subsoil  to  the  seed  also 
makes  it  easier  for  this  moisture  to  continue  to  rise  to  the  sur- 
face, where  it  would  be  lost  by  evaporation.  Hence,  evaporation 
must  be  decreased  by  forming  a  mulch,  or  layer  of  loose  soil  on 
the  surface,  which  is  most  easily  done  by  using  a  harrow  or 
weeder  after  the  roller. 

The  sowing  of  wheat  on  land  which  has  not  been  plowed,  but 
merely  disked,  is  sometimes  practiced  on  clean  mellow  soil  in 
higher  latitudes.  This  procedure  has  been  found  insufficient  in 
the  South. 


52  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

52.  When  to  sow  wheat.  —  The  kind  of  wheat  grown  in 
the  South  should  be  sown  in  the  fall.     In  the  Gulf  States 
some  wheat  is  sown  as  late  as  the  first  part  of  December, 
This  is  too  late  for  the  maximum  yield,  even  in  the  central 
or  southern  parts  of  the  Gulf  States. 

The  best  date  for  sowing  wheat  depends  on  the  following 
considerations :  — 

(1)  The  average  date  when  killing  frost  occurs  in  each 
locality. 

(2)  The  latitude  and  altitude. 

(3)  The  fertility  of  the  soil. 

53.  The    date    as    determined    by    killing    frost.  —  In 
North  Carolina  and  the  other  parts  of  the  cotton-belt  in 
which  the  Hessian  fly,  or  ".wheat-fly"  occurs,  sowing  is 
postponed,  if  practicable,  as  late  as  necessary  to  insure  that 
the  young  wheat  plants  do  not  come  up  until  after  a  killing 
frost  has  occurred.     This  is  because  a  killing  frost  stops 
the  laying  of  eggs  by  the  Hessian  fly,  and  because  if  young 
wheat  plants  should  appear  above  the  ground  before  that 
time,  the  eggs  would  be  deposited  on  them  and  the  crop 
subsequently  injured  by  the  insects  developing  from  the 
eggs.     It  was  found  that  in  the  northern  part  of  Georgia 
(Ga.  Bd.  Entomology,  Circ.  7),  wheat  sown  during  the  last 
10  days  in  October  practically  escaped  injury. 

Average  dates  of  first  killing  frost.  —  The  average  dates  of  first 
killing  frosts  for  typical  southern  localities,  as  determined  by  the 
Weather  Bureau,  are  as  follows :  — 

Blacksburg,  Virginia,  Sept.  30.  Asheville,    North    Carolina, 

Lynchburg,  Virginia,  Nov.  1.  Oct.  20. 

Knoxville,  Tennessee,  Oct.  27.  Charlotte,   North   Carolina, 

Nashville,  Tennessee,  Oct.  24.  .    Nov.  4. 


WHEAT  53 

Greenville,   South  Carolina,  Montgomery,  Alabama,  Nov.  8. 

Nov.  6.  Columbia,       South     Carolina, 

Atlanta,  Georgia,  Nov.  7.  Nov.  8. 

Decatur,  Alabama,  Oct.  15.  Shreveport,  Louisiana,  Nov.  11. 

Memphis,  Tennessee,  Oct.  28.  Dallas,  Texas,  Nov.  15. 
Opelika,  Alabama,  Nov.  9. 

The  average  date  of  killing  frost  will  usually  prove  a  satisfac- 
tory date  for  sowing  wheat  in  the  northern  and  central  parts  of 
the  cotton-belt.  North  of  the  cotton-belt,  a  date  slightly  ahead 
of  the  average  date  of  killing  frost  may  afford  a  larger  yield. 
South  of  the  area  where  the  Hessian  fly  occurs,  the  sowing  of 
wheat  may  be  several  weeks  earlier  than  the  average  date  of 
first  killing  frost. 

54.  Climate  and  soil  as  related  to  the  best  date  for 
sowing  wheat.  —  The  cooler  the  climate,  —  that  is,  the 
higher  the  latitude  and  the  greater  the  altitude,  —  the 
earlier  must  wheat  be  sown  to  afford  the  maximum  yield. 
Early  sowing  usually  affords  the  largest  yield,  since  it  pro- 
vides a  longer  time  for  the  plant  to  develop  a  strong  root 
system,  to  tiller  or  thicken  more  completely,  and  to  collect 
plant-food.  However,  extremely  early  sowing  is  inad- 
visable, even  in  regions  where  the  Hessian  fly  is  not 
present,  since  this  causes  the  plants  to  enter  the  boot 
stage  —  that  is,  to  form  stems — before  all  freezing  weather 
is  past.  In  this  stage  plants  of  all  of  the  small  grains 
are  especially  liable  to  injury  by  a  degree  of  cold  that 
would  not  prove  harmful  to  plants  that  had  not  begun 
to  form  stems. 

The  poorer  the  land  the  more  urgent  the  need  for  a  rather 
early  date  of  sowing,  so  that  the  early  sowing  may  encour- 
age tillering,  which  is  not  favored  by  poor  soil. 

For  the  central  part  of  the  cotton-belt,  the  first  half 


54  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

of  November  may  be  regarded  as  a  generally  satisfactory 
date  for  sowing  wheat. 

55.    Drilling  versus  broadcast  sowing.  —  Experiments  in 
the  principal  wheat-growing  states  show  a  larger  yield  from 


FIG.  20.  —  DOUBLE-DISK  GKAIN  DRILL. 

drilling  wheat  by  the  use  of  a  grain  drill  (Fig.  20),  sowing 
the  seed  in  rows,  6,  7,  or  8  inches  apart,  than  from  sowing 
broadcast.  The  advantages  of  drilling  are  the  following :  — 

(1)  Usually  a  somewhat  larger  yield. 

(2)  Planting  at  a  more  uniform  depth  and  hence  greater 
uniformity  in  the  ripening  of  the  plants. 

(3)  Slightly   increased   protection    from    winter-killing 
through  heaving,  that  is,  the  lifting  of  the  young  plants 
above  the  surface  by  the  expansion  of  the  moisture  in  the 
soil  when  it  freezes ;   the  plants  growing  in  the  slight  de- 
pression left  by  the  drill  are  in  the  position  where  there  is 


WHEAT  55 

least  tendency  for  the  soil  and  the  plant  to  be  pressed 
upward. 

(4)  A  saving  of  1  to  2  pecks  of  seed  wheat  per  acre  when 
the  seed  is  drilled. 

The  increased  yield  from  drilling  at  the  Kentucky  Experiment 
Station  averaged  4  bushels  per  acre. 

The  slight  ridges  left  by  the  grain  drill  are  advantageous 
in  the  colder  parts  of  Virginia  and  Kentucky,  and  still  more  so 
further  north,  since  they  hold  the  snow  and  thus  keep  the  plants 
warmer  than  they  would  be  if  exposed  to  very  severe  cold,  with- 
out the  covering  of  snow.  This  consideration  does  not  apply  to 
most  Southern  States,  in  which  snow  normally  lies  on  the  ground 
for  only  a  small  portion  of  the  winter. 

56.  Seeding    machines.  —  Of    the    several    types    of 
grain    drills,    the    disk    drills    (Fig.    20)    are    preferable, 
especially  where   there   is   much  litter,   stone,   or   other 
obstruction.     For   land  that   is   clean    and    in  excellent 
condition,  the  hoe  drill  and  the  shoe  drill  are  also  satis- 
factory.    Most  drills  are  provided  with  fertilizer  attach- 
ments, and  attachments  for  sowing  grass  or  clover  seed 
can  also  be  purchased. 

Broadcast  sowing  is  usually  done  by  hand.  Yet 
there  are  cheap  and  efficient  broadcast  seeders  that 
may  be  hung  from  the  sower's  shoulders;  there  are 
also  broadcast  seeders  that  may  be  attached  to  the  rear 
end  of  a  wagon  and  driven  by  the  revolution  of  the 
wagon  wheels. 

57.  Quantity  of  seed.  —  In  the  wheat-growing  states, 
great  numbers  of  experiments  have  been  made  on  this 
point.     The  results  have  been  variable  from  year  to  year, 
with  different  soils  and  climates,  and  with  different  varie- 


56  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

ties.  In  general  the  highest  yields  have  seldom  been  made 
with  less  than  5  pecks  of  seed,  and  usually  6  pecks  or  more 
per  acre  have  afforded  larger  yields  than  have  smaller 
quantities  of  seed. 

The  earlier  the  sowing  and  the  better  prepared  the  land,  the 
smaller  may  be  the  quantity  of  seed.  Varieties  with  large  seed 
require  a  greater  number  of  pecks  per  acre.  The  richer  the  soil 
the  greater  the  number  of  plants  that  an  acre  will  provide  with 
food  and  moisture,  and  also  the  greater,  with  early  sowing,  will 
be  the  amount  of  tillering.  While  no  general  rule  is  universally 
applicable,  a  safe  average  amount  is  5  pecks  per  acre  for  drilling 
and  6  pecks  for  broadcast  sowing. 

58.  Large  versus  medium  and  small  seed.  —  (See  47.) 
In  numerous  experiments  in  Europe  and  America  com- 
parisons have  been  made  between  the  large  and  the  small 
seed  of  wheat,  as  separated  by  sieves,  and  ordinary  seed. 
The  results  have  been  variable.  Apparently  it  pays  to 
select  the  largest  grains  by  means  of  sieves  or  other  devices 
connected  with  fanning  machines,  —  provided  a  larger 
volume  of  the  larger  seed  be  sown,  so  as  to  afford  the  same 
number  of  plants  as  a  smaller  weight  of  lighter  seed.  Sep- 
aration of  seed  by  this  means  is  especially  important  in  the 
South,  where  small  and  shrunken  grains  frequently  occur, 
often  as  the  result  of  injury  by  rust. 

However,  to  improve  a  variety  one  must  not  rely  ex- 
clusively on  sowing  the  larger  grains.  Not  all  of  these 
occur  on  the  best  plants,  and  it  is  the  entire  parent 
plant,  rather  than  an  individual  seed,  that  determines 
the  character  of  the  offspring.  Fanning  and  screen- 
ing should  be  practiced  with  the  general  crop,  but  to 
improve  wheat,  rapidly  there  is  also  needed  a  special 


WHEAT  57 

seed   patch,   the   seeds   for  which    are   all   from   plants 
selected  as  the  best. 

59.  Change  of  seed.  —  As  a  general  rule,  there  is  no 
advantage,  and  often  a  decided  loss  in  yield,  in  bringing 
seed  wheat  from  a  different  latitude,  instead  of  sowing 
grain  grown  in  the  same  climate.     Southern  seed  wheat  for 
Southern  fields  should  be  the  rule,  except  where  the  home- 
grown crop  has  been  a  failure,  resulting  in  small,  shrunken 
grains.     There  is  no  inherent  advantage  in  change  of  seed. 
Acclimatized  seed  is  more  productive  and,  in  the  case  of 
wheat,  earlier. 

60.  Tillage.  —  Since  wheat  is  usually  sown  either  broad- 
cast or  else  in  rows  6  to  8  inches  apart,  it  usually  receives 
no  tillage  after  the  plants  come  up.     Yet  occasionally 
farmers  have  drilled  wheat  in  rows  far  enough  apart  and 
have  cultivated  the  crop,  with  resulting  large  yields.     Such 
tillage,  if  given  at  all,  should  be  extremely  shallow,  espe- 
cially in  the  latter  part  of  the  growing  season,  since  many 
of  the  roots  of  wheat  are  near  the  surface.     It  is  practicable 
to  till  wheat  by  the  use  of  a  light  spike-tooth  adjustable 
harrow,  or  weeder. 

The  stiffer  the  soil  and  the  smaller  its  supply  of  vege- 
table matter  the  greater  is  the  benefit  from  harrowing  wheat 
before  the  booting  stage.  Wheat  sown  by  a  grain  drill  is 
more  satisfactorily  harrowed  than  broadcast  wheat.  But 
in  neither  case  is  the  stand  materially  thinned  by  the  use  of 
a  weeder  or  harrow  when  conditions  are  favorable;  for 
example,  —  stones  and  litter  absent  and  plants  several 
months  old,  but  not  with  stems  of  any  considerable  length. 

61.  Pasturing  wheat.  —  Since  wheat  makes  an  excellent 
winter  pasture  for  practically  all  kinds  of  live-stock,  it  is 


58  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 

sometimes  grazed  in  winter,  and  later  used  for  grain  pro- 
duction. Experiments  for  three  years  at  the  Oklahoma 
Experiment  Station  resulted  in  little  or  no  reduction  in  the 
yield  of  grain  from  judicious  pasturing  of  wheat  in  winter, 
when  pasturing  was  not  continued  beyond  March  1. 
(Okla.  Expr.  Sta.,  Rpt.,  1906,  p.  31.) 

When  stock  was  kept  on  wheat  as  late  as  April  15,  the 
grain  yield  was  notably  reduced. 

In  pasturing  wheat  in  winter  care  should  be  taken  to 
exclude  the  stock  while  the  ground  is  wet.  In  the  case  of 
wheat  that  is  too  forward,  or  in  danger  of  forming  culms 
before  freezing  weather  is  past,  moderate  pasturing  is 
usually  advantageous,  since  it  delays  growth.  Pasturing 
early  in  the  winter  is  thought  to  increase  the  number  of 
stems  to  the  plant  and  thus  to  thicken  the  stand. 

HARVESTING 

62.  Time  to  harvest  wheat.  —  The  proper  time  for 
harvesting  wheat  is  indicated  both  by  the  color  of  the  straw 
and  by  the  degree  of  hardness  of  the  grain.  Wheat  should 
be  cut  when  the  individual  grains  are  soft  enough  to  be 
indented  by  the  finger-nail,  but  too  hard  to  be  easily 
crushed  between  the  thumb  and  finger.  At  this  stage  of 
maturity,  the  straw  of  most  plants  will  have  turned  yellow- 
ish. However,  when  rust  is  prevalent  and  increasing, 
earlier  harvesting  of  the  grain  crop  is  advisable.  Indeed, 
should  rust  become  very  serious  before  the  grain  reaches 
the  milk  stage,  it  will  often  be  advisable  to  mow  the  crop 
promptly  for  hay.  In  the  Gulf  States  wheat  harvest  occurs 
late  in  May  and  early  in  June,  or  a  little  earlier  than  the 
harvest  of  fall-sown  red  oats. 


WHEAT  59 

Wheat  is  best  cut  and  tied  by  the  self-binder.  It  should 
be  promptly  shocked  and  capped.  Some  farmers  thresh 
from  the  shock  a  few  weeks  after  harvest,  but  it  is  safer  to 
place  the  sheaf-wheat  in  stack  or  barn  until  ready  to 
thresh.  Threshing  is  usually  done  by  threshing  crews 
that  travel  from  farm  to  farm. 

63.  When  to  cut  wheat  for  hay.  —  Wheat  for  hay  is 
probably  best  cut  when  in  the  "  late  milk  stage,"  but  if 
rust  is  absent,  mowing  may  be  deferred  until  the  grain  is  in 
the  "  early  dough  "  stage.  If  rust  promises  to  be  severe, 
wheat  may  be  mown  while  still  in  bloom. 
•  64.  Yields  and  prices.  —  The  legal  weight  of  a  bushel 
of  wheat  is  60  pounds.  A  measured  bushel  may  weigh  a 
few  pounds  above  or  below  this  weight.  The  heavier  a 
bushel  of  wheat,  the  better  is  the  quality.  The  average 
yield  of  wheat  in  the  entire  United  States  for  the  ten-year 
period  ending  in  1906  was  13.8  bushels  per  acre.  The 
average  of  the  cotton  states  is  considerably  below  this 
figure ;  but  individual  farmers  in  the  cotton  states  some- 
times produce  an  average  of  more  than  20  bushels  per  acre. 
The  usual  price  of  wheat  is  from  80  cents  to  $1.20  per 
bushel. 

ENEMIES 

65.  Weeds. — Numerous  weeds  grow  in  wheat  fields, 
either  because  the  seeds  were  sown  as  impurities  in  the 
seed  wheat,  or  because  the  weed  seeds  were  already  in  the 
ground.  Among  the  most  important  of  these  are  the  fol- 
lowing :  — 

Cheat  or  chess.  —  A  winter-growing  annual  grass  liable 
to  be  troublesome  in  all  kinds  of  grain.  It  is  most  abun- 


60  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

dant  and  injurious  when  unfavorable  conditions  result  in  a 
thin  stand  of  wheat.  There  is  no  foundation  for  the  belief 
that  wheat  may  turn  to  cheat.  The  cheat  comes  only  from 
cheat  seeds,  which  are  much  smaller  and  lighter  than  wheat 
grains.  Hence,  cheat  seed  can  be  separated  from  wheat 
by  the  fanning  machine,  or  by  immersing  the  seed  in  water, 
when  the  sound  wheat  grains  sink,  while  the  cheat  seeds 
float  and  may  be  skimmed  off. 

Cockle  is  an  annual  plant  with  large  pink  flowers  and 
black  seeds.  The  latter  are  so  nearly  of  the  same  diameter 
as  grains  of  wheat  that  their  separation  is  not  easy,  and 
their  retention  results  in  very  inferior  flour.  Avoid  sowing* 
wheat  with  these  black  seed  in  it.  If  occasional  plants  of 
cockle  appear,  they  should  be  pulled. 

Wild  garlic  (wild  onion)  and  peppergrass  are  among  the 
other  weeds  often  found  in  wheat  fields.  The  fanning  and 
screening  of  the  seed  wheat  is  the  usual  means  of  avoiding 
peppergrass  and  other  weeds.  Recent  experiments  have 
shown  that  millers  can  separate  onion  bulblets  from  wheat 
by  artificially  drying  the  wheat  and  then  passing  it  through 
the  ordinary  cleaning  machinery  of  the  mills.  (U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.,  Bur.  Plant  Ind.,  Bui.  No.  100,  Part  III.) 

66.  Diseases.  —  Blasts  are  the  most  injurious  diseases 
of  wheat.  The  rusts  are  caused  by  certain  microscopic 
organisms  (fungi) .  Both  the  leaves  and  stems  may  be  af- 
fected and  changed  from  a  green  color  by  a  series  of  small 
reddish  or  black  spots  from  which  may  arise  clouds  of  pow- 
dery spores,  or  propagating  bodies.  The  destruction  of  the 
green  coloring  matter  in  the  leaf  prevents  the  formation  of 
starch,  and  results  in  poor  yields  of  small,  shriveled  grains. 
Dampness  and  heat  favor  rust.  Varieties  ripening  early 


WHEAT  61 

will  usually  suffer  less  than  late  varieties.  On  low  damp 
land  rust  is  most  destructive.  Attempts  have  often  been 
made,  with  but  little  success,  to  breed  a  rust-resistant 
variety,  that  should  also  be  productive  and  otherwise 
desirable.  Such  efforts  should  be  continued.  No  effec- 
tive treatment  for  wheat  rust  is  known. 

Stinking  or  concealed  smut.  —  This  disease  Changes  the 
grain  into  a  mass  of  powdery  black  spores,  with  offensive 
smell.  It  ruins  the  flour.  As  the  chaff  is  not  changed,  the 
diseased  grains  may  not  be  noticed.  The  spores  of  this 
fungus  are  conveyed  by  the  seed  wheat,  hence  the  disease 
may  readily  be  prevented  by  either  of  the  following  treat- 
ments of  the  seed  wheat :  — 

(1)  Immerse  the  seed  or  thoroughly  dampen  them  with 
a  mixture  of  one  ounce  of  liquid  formalin  in  each  three 
gallons  of  water ;    keep  the  seed  grains  damp  and  the  pile 
covered  with  cloth  for  at  least  a  few  hours ;   then  dry  and 
plant  the  grain. 

(2)  Or  immerse  the  seed  grain  for  ten  minutes  in  a  solu- 
tion of  one  pound  of  bluestone  (copper  sulfate)  in  five 
gallons  of  water. 

(3)  Or  immerse  the  seed  wheat  for  ten  minutes  in  water 
kept  at  about  133°  F.,  then  cool  the  seed  promptly  by 
stirring  or  by  dipping  the  hot  grain  into  cold  water. 

Loose  smut  of  wheat  (Fig.  21).  —  This  disease  is  known 
by  the  occasional  heads  that  contain  no  semblance  of  grains, 
but  only  small  black  masses  of  powder,  consisting  of  spores, 
which  are  microscopic  bodies  serving  the  purpose  of  seed 
for  the  fungus  that  causes  this  disease.  It  is  rarer  than 
concealed  smut,  and  like  it,  is  conveyed  by  the  seed  wheat. 
The  fungus  causing  loose  smut  of  wheat  is  much  less  easily 


62 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


FIG.  21. —  LOOSE  SMUT  OF 
WHEAT. 


destroyed  than  the  organism 
causing  concealed  smut  of  wheat 
or  the  loose  smut  of  oats.  Treat- 
ment is  not  recommended  unless 
the  disease  has  been  injuriously 
present  in  the  crop  from  which 
seed  is  taken.  When  treatment 
is  necessary,  it  kills  many  of  the 
seed,  so  that  50  per  cent  addi- 
tional seed  should  be  sown. 

The  treatment  when  necessary 
is  as  follows :  Soak  the  seed 
wheat  for  4  hours  in  cold  water ; 
then  scald  for  5  minutes  at  a 
temperature  of  133°  F. 

In  treating  seed  wheat  or  other 
seed  grain  by  any  of  the  above- 
named  methods,  the  grain  after 
treatment  should  not  be  allowed 
to  come  in  contact  with  floors  or 
sacks  that  have  not  been  dis- 
infected; such  contact  would 
again  infect  the  treated  grain 
with  spores,  which  would  cause 
the  disease. 

67.  Insect  pests  of  wheat.  — 
The  Hessian  fly  is  the  most  seri- 
ous of  insect  pests  and  is  widely 
spread.  From  the  egg,  laid  on 
the  leaf  blades  of  the  young 
plants,  hatch  tiny  insects  which 


WHEAT 


63 


find  their  way  to  a  point  within  the  leaf-sheath,  where 
their  injuries  cause  many  of  the  stems  in  spring  to  break 
and  fall  over.  The  name  "  flaxseed  "  is  applied  to  the 
pupal  or  transforming  stage  of  the  insect  because  of  the 
resemblance  of  the  pupa  in  color  and  shape  to  a  flaxseed. 
This  pest  spends  the  summer  on  the  wheat  stubble. 
Hence  the  usual  means  of  combating  the  insect  is  to  burn 
the  stubble,  or  to  plow  it  in  thoroughly.  Postponement 
of  sowing  until  a  severe  frost  occurs  greatly  decreases  the 
number  of  eggs  deposited  in  the  fall.  Rotation  of  crops 
is  an  important 
means  of  decreas- 
ing the  injury. 

Chinch  bugs.  — 
Small  insects  that 
undergo  a  number 
of  changes  in  size 
and  color;  are 
sometimes  injuri- 
ous to  wheat. 
When  warfare  is 
made  against  them , 
it  is  usually  after 
they  have  emerged 
from  the  wheat 
field  and  are  invad- 
ing corn  fields. 

The  Wheat  plant-         Fl°'  22--THE  ANGOUMOIS  GRAIN-MOTH. 
louse      OT      "green-  Enlarged  6  times.     (W.E.  Hinds.) 

bug"  (Fig.  9).  —  This  small  greenish  plant-louse  has  in 
some  years  proved  very  injurious  to  wheat  in  the  south- 


64  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

western  part  of  the  wheat-growing  region.  Its  injury  is 
done  by  sucking  the  juices  from  the  plant.  Its  natural 
enemies  among  insects  are  relied  on  to  keep  the  green-bug 
in  subjection.  One  of  these,  a  lady-bug  beetle  (Fig.  10), 
has  sometimes  been  propagated  by  entomologists  and  sent 
into  the  infested  regions. 

In  the  shock,  stack,  or  bin  the  wheat  grain  is  attacked 
by  weevils  and  by  the  larva,  or  worm  stage,  of  the  small, 
gray  grain-moth  (Galechia  cerealella)  (Fig.  22) .  The  reme- 
dies consist  in  prompt  threshing  of  the  grain  and  in  placing 
near  the  top  of  the  tight  bin  of  threshed  grain  one  pound 
of  carbon-disulfide  for  each  30  bushels  of  grain.  This 
liquid  promptly  vaporizes.  The  vapors  are  destructive 
to  insect  life.  They  are  also  quite  inflammable,  so  that  no 
fire,  or  light,  or  smoking  is  permissible  about  the  granary 
while  grain  is  being  thus  fumigated. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

The  young  plants. 

(1)  Repeated  tests  should  be  made  of  the  student's  ability  to 
distinguish  the  young  plants  of  wheat,  oats,  barley,  and  rye  by  the 
auricles  (Figs.  1, 12, 23,  and  28).     If  no  young  plants  are  available, 
leaves  of  mature  plants  may  be  used  for  the  same  purpose,  after 
dampening  them. 

(2)  Select  five  young  wheat  plants,  each  having  abundant 
space  around  it,  and  record  (a)  total  number  of  stems  and  (6) 
average  number  of  stems  per  plant. 

(3)  Repeat  exercise  (2)  with  five  plants  closely  crowded  by 
other  plants.     Compare  figures  for  (2)  with  those  for  (3). 

(4)  Plant  25  kernels  of  wheat  at  each  of  the  following  depths  : 
|  inch,  1  inch,  2,  3,  4,  5,  and  6  inches.     Keep  the  soil  moderately 
moist ;   at  intervals  of  a  week  record  the  number  of  plants  that 
have  come  up  from  each  depth  of  planting. 


WHEAT  65 

(5)  After  the  plants  from  the  deeper  depths  have  been  up  for 
two  or  more  weeks,  and  again  at  a  much  later  date,  carefully  dig 
several  plants  from  plantings  made  at  each  depth,  and  record  the 
distances  below  the  surface  at  which  the  principal  roots  are  grow- 
ing, or  depths  at  which  the  crown  is  forming. 

The  mature  plants. 

(6)  If  drilled  and  broadcast  wheat  are  both  available,  ascertain 
(by  digging  the  plants)  the  average  number  of  plants  and  of  stems 
per  square  foot  of  ground  surface  with  each  of  these  two  methods 
of  sowing. 

(7)  From  wheat  heading  in  the  field  or  from  dried  specimens, 
record  the  following  data  for  as  many  varieties  of  wheat  as  are 
commonly  grown  in  the  locality  :  — 

(a)  Average  height  of  plant. 

(6)  Average  number  of  stems  bearing  heads. 

(c)  Bearded,  beardless,  or  partly  bearded. 

(d)  Estimated  percentage  of  upper  leaf  surf  ace  covered  by  rust. 

(e)  Has  rust  attacked  the  stems  slightly,  considerably,  or  not 

at  all  ? 

(8)  From  dried  mature  plants  in  the  laboratory,  after  being 
moistened,  or  from   nearly  mature   specimens   from   the   field, 
describe  in  writing  each  of  the  varieties  indicated  by  the  instruc- 
tor, as  to  the  following  points  :  — 

(a)  Bearded,  beardless,  or  partly  bearded. 
(6)  Average  length  of  head. 

(c)  Average  number  of  spikelets  per  head. 

(d)  Difference,  if  any,  in  usual  number  of  grains  per  spikelet 

in  tip,  middle,  and  base  of  head. 

(e)  Difference,  if  any,  in  size  of  grains  in  tip,  middle,  and 

base  of  head. 

(f)  Difference  in  size  of  middle  grain  in  a  mesh  compared 

with  the  two  outer  grains. 

Character  of  grain. 

(9)  For  varieties  commonly  grown  in  the  locality  record  a 
description  as  to  each  of  the  following  points  :  — 

F 


66 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


(a)  Prevailing  color,  —  whitish,  amber,  or  reddish. 
(6)  Hard,  medium,  or  soft,  in  crushing. 

(c)  Plump,  shriveled,  or  medium-plump. 

(d)  Size  of  grain,  —  large,  medium,  or  small. 

(e)  Crease,  —  deep,  medium,  or  shallow. 

(10)  Standards  for  wheat  grown  in  the  South  have  not  been 
agreed  on.  Until  this  is  done,  the  following  standard  for  Fultz 
wheat  used  in  Kansas  may  prove  a  useful  basis  for  the  formu- 
lation of  Southern  standards. 

Fultz.     Type  :   red,  soft,  winter. 

Length  of  berry  :   inches,  ^  to  -fa. 

Thickness  of  berry  :   inches,  ?\  to  /^. 

Shape    and    plumpness :    very  plump,  rounded   sides ; 

shallow  groove. 

Moisture  content :  per  cent,  10. 
Weight  per  bushel :  pounds,  60. 
Percentage  of  soft  grains,  90. 

Practice  scoring  wheat  grain  by  the  following  score-card,  or 
such  modification  of  it  as  the  instructor  may  direct :  — 


DEDUCT 

PERFECT 
SCORE 

FOR  EACH 
%  UNDE- 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

SIRABLE 

1.  Trueness  to  variety 

10 

TV 

2.  Uniformity    in    size    and 

shape  of  kernel 

10 

TV 

3.  Color  of  grain 

10 

TV 

4.  Freedom     from     mixture 

with  other  grain 

15 

i 

5.   Size  of  kernel 

10 

| 

6.  Per  cent  and    nature   of 

weed  seed,  dirt,  etc. 

15 

1 

7.  Per     cent    of     damaged, 

smutty  ,  or  musty  kernels 

5 

1 

8.  Weight  of  grain  per  bu. 

10 

1 

9.   Germination 

15 

1 

Total 

100     | 

WHEAT  67 

LITERATURE 

BESSEY,  C.  E.     The  Structure  of  the  Wheat  Grain.     Neb.  Expr. 

Sta.,  Bui.  No.  32. 
KILGORE,  B.  W.,  and  others.     Culture  and  Variety  Tests  of 

Wheat.  N.  C.  Dept.  Agr.  Bui.,  Vol.  30,  No.  8,  Aug.  1909. 
HUNT,  THOMAS  F.  The  Cereals  in  America.  New  York,  1908. 
ELLIOTT,  E.  E.,  and  LYON,  T.  L.  Wheat.  Bailey's  Cyclo.  Am. 

Agr.,  Vol.   II,  pp.   660-670. 
CARLETON,  M.  A.     The  Basis  for  the  Improvement  of  American 

Wheats.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Div.  Veg.  Phys.  and  Path.,  Bui. 

No.  24. 
CARLETON,   M.   A.,   and   others.    Field   Methods   in  Breeding 

Wheat.    Am.  Breeders'  Asscn.,  Vol.  V,  pp.  185-207. 
SCOFIELD,  CARL  S.     The  Description  of  Wheat  Varieties.    U.  S. 

Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Plant  Ind.,  Bui.  No.  27. 
HAYS,  WILLETT  M.     Plant  Breeding.    U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Div.  of 

Veg.  Phys.  and  Path.,  Bui.  No.  29. 
SOULE,  A.  M.,  and  VANATTER,  P.  0.    Tenn.   Expr.   Sta.  Bui., 

Vol.  14,  No.  3,  and  Vol.  16,  No.  4. 
LYON,  T.  L.     Improving  the  Quality  of  Wheat.     U.  S.  Dept. 

'   Agr.,  Bur.  Plant  Ind.,  Bui.  No.  78. 
LYON   and    MONTGOMERY.     Examining   and    Grading    Grains. 

Lincoln,  Neb. 
DONDLINGER,  P.  T.    Book  of  Wheat.    New  York,  1908. 


CHAPTER  III 

JRYE   AND   BARLEY 

RYE  and  barley  are  not  more  closely  related  than  the 
other  small  grains  treated  in  this  book,  but  they  are 
thrown  together  in  one  chapter  because  they  are  relatively 
unimportant  in  the  South.  Rye  is  a  cool-season  crop, 
whereas  north  of  the  cotton-belt  barley  is  a  warm-season 
crop.  Both  are  members  of  the  grass  family  (Gramineoe). 

I.     RYE SEC  ALE    CEREALE 

Rye  is  an  annual  winter-growing  grain.  The  acreage  in 
the  South  is  very  small  compared  with  that  of  oats  or  wheat. 
The  chief  use  of  rye  in  the  South  is  for  pasturage  and  for 
soiling  (that  is,  to  be  used  as  cut  green  food) . 

Other  uses  of  various  parts  of  the  plant  are  the  following : 
The  grain  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  alcoholic  liquors ; 
it  is  utilized  to  a  small  extent  in  this  country  for  human  food 
and  as  a  food  for  live-stock.  The  straw  commands  a  higher 
price  than  that  of  any  of  the  other  small  grains.  Its  prin- 
cipal use  is  for  bedding;  for  the  manufacture  of  horse 
collars ;  and  as  packing  material.  Most  of  the  rye  grain 
threshed  in  the  Southern  States  is  used  as  seed  for  the 
succeeding  crop.  The  rye  plant  makes  hay  of  very  poor 
quality. 

68.  Description. — The  grain  of  rye,  like  that  of  wheat,  has 
no  adhering  hull  after  it  has  passed  through  the  thresher. 

68 


EYE  AND  BARLEY 


69 


It  may  be  distinguished 
from  a  wheat  grain  by 
the  longer,  slenderer, 
more  wrinkled  appear- 
ance, and  by  the  fact 
that  the  crease  is  more 
shallow. 

The  head  of  rye  (Fig. 
23)  is  longer  than  that 
of  wheat  or  barley,  and 
long  beards  are  borne 
on  the  tips  of  the 
glumes.  The  heads  are 
usually  slightly  flat- 
tened, the  beards  being 
arranged  loosely  in  two 
rows  and  not  spreading 
so  widely  as  in  bearded 
wheat  and  barley. 

The  young  plant  of 
rye  may  be  distinguished 
from  young  wheat  and 
barley  by  the  very  small 
auricles  at  the  points 
where  leaf-blade  and 
leaf-sheath  join  (Fig. 
24). 

Young  rye  plants  usu- 
ally show  considerable 
reddish  color  in  the 
stem,  and  the  foliage 


Fia.  23.— HEADS  OF  SOUTHERN  RYB. 


70 


SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 


is  commonly  of  a  grayer  green  than  that  of  the  other 
small  grains. 

69.  Varieties.  —  There  is  but  a  limited  number  of  vari- 
eties of  rye,  even  in  European  countries.  Practically  only 
one  kind  or  variety  is  successfully  and 
generally  grown  in  the  warmer  portion 
of  the  South,  which  is  known  simply 
as  Southern  rye. 

The  rye  flower,  unlike  that  of 
wheat,  oats,  and  barley,  is  cross-pol- 
linated, so  that  it  would  not  be  desir- 
able to  sow  two  different  varieties 
near  together. 

70.  Climate.  —  The  rye  plant  is 
adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  climate. 
It  is  hardier  towards  cold  than  any  of 
the  other  small  grains  and  is  practi- 
cally never  injured  in  the  South  by 
winter-killing.  Rye  can  be  sown  suc- 
cessfully in  a  latitude  too  far  south  for  general  success  with 
wheat.  However,  in  growing  rye  in  the  South  it  is  very 
important  to  use  seed  grown  as  far  south  as  practicable. 
It  is  thought  that  seed  from  the  central  and  lower  parts 
of  the  Gulf  States  is  better  for  sowing  in  the  South  than 
that  from  the  extreme  northern  parts  of  the  same  states, 
and  far  better  than  that  from  still  higher  latitudes.  North- 
ern rye  spreads  out  so  closely  on  the  ground  that  it  does 
not  afford  the  best  early  winter  pasturage,  and  seed  from 
higher  latitudes  produces  a  smaller  plant  that  is  more 
subject  to  rust  than  Southern  rye. 

71.   Soils  and  fertilizers.  —  Rye  can  be  grown  on  almost 


FIG.  24.  —  PART  OF  A 
YOUNG  RYE  PLANT, 
SHOWING  THE  SMALL 
CLASPS  OF  THE 
LEAVES. 


EYE  AND  BARLEY  71 

any  soil,  provided  it  be  fairly  well  drained.  It  has  been 
found  to  endure  a  greater  amount  of  acidity  in  the  soil  than 
oats,  wheat,  or  barley  plants.  (R.  I.  Expr.  Sta.,  Rpt.  1907} 
p.  359.) 

While  rye  will  grow  on  poor  soils,  it  is  possible  to  make 
large  yields  of  forage  only  on  rich  or  highly  fertilized  land. 
With  rye  intended  for  soiling,  a  liberal  use  of  stable  manure 
constitutes  the  best  fertilization.  If  commercial  fertilizers 
alone  must  be  used,  it  is  usually  advisable  to  apply  acid 
phosphate ;  in  addition  cotton-seed  meal  may  be  applied  at 
the  time  of  planting  and  not  in  contact  with  the  seed,  or  else 
nitrate  of  soda  may  be  employed  as  a  top  dressing  before 
the  stems  have  formed.  On  very  sandy  soils  there  may 
be  need  for  a  small  amount  of  potash. 

72.  Preparation  and  sowing.  —  Rye  may  be  sown 
either  (1)  broadcast,  or  (2)  in  drills  6  or  8  inches  apart  by  the 
use  of  a  grain  drill,  or  (3)  it  may  be  sown  by  hand  or  planter 
in  drills  18  to  24  inches  apart.  For  soiling  purposes  it  is 
preferable  to  sow  in  drills,  but  for  grazing,  broadcast  sowing 
is  the  most  common.  Rye  may  be  sown  through  a  longer 
period  than  any  of  the  other  small  grains.  September  1  is 
not  too  early  for  a  sowing  on  rich  land  with  the  purpose  of 
furnishing  soiling  food  in  December,  January,  and  February. 
Sowings  may  be  made  at  intervals  throughout  the  fall  and 
even  up  to  December  15,  the  later  sowing  making  a  smaller 
yield.  When  sown  broadcast,  the  amount  of  seed  needed 
for  grain  production  is  4  to  5  pecks  per  acre,  and  for  pas- 
turage 6  to  8  pecks.  In  planting  rye  in  18-inch  drills,  one 
bushel  per  acre  is  usually  sufficient.  For  pasturage,  rye 
may  be  sown  with  crimson  clover  (Fig.  25)  or  with  other 
winter-growing  legumes. 


72 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


FIG.  25. —  A  MIXTURE  OF  RYE  AND  CRIMSON  CLOVER. 
Showing  the  height  to  which  rye  grows. 

73.  Utilization.  —  On  rich  land  rye  sown  early  in  the 
fall  may  be  cut  three  or  even  four  times  as  a  soiling  crop, 
the  first  cutting  being  made  in  December  or  January.  In 
order  to  secure  several  cuttings,  the  plant  must  be  cut  just 


EYE  AND  BARLEY 


73 


before  the  heads  appear.  The  later  the  sowing  and  the 
poorer  the  land  the  later  the  date  at  which  rye  can  first  be 
used  as  a  soiling  crop.  Under  average  conditions  this  is 
from  February  15,  to  March  15  in  the  central  part  of  the 
Gulf  States.  Southern  rye  is  somewhat  earlier  in  matur- 
ing than  most  varieties  of  wheat  or  oats. 

Rye  for  pasturage  must  be  kept  rather  closely  grazed  in 
the  spring  or  else  some  of  the  plants  will  develop  tall  stems, 
and  in  this  condition  these  plants  will  not 
be  readily  eaten  by  live-stock. 

Rye  for  grain  may  be  harvested  with  a 
self-binder,  or  if  too  long  for  this,  with  a 
self-rake  reaper.  There  is  usually  about 
twice  the  weight  of  straw  as  of  grain.  Good 
yields  in  the  South  are  from  10  to  18  bushels 
per  acre. 

If  rye  straw  is  to  be  sold  at  the  highest 
price  in  the  Northern  cities,  it  should  be 
threshed  on  a  special  machine  or  rye  beater. 
This  does  not  tangle  the  straw,  which  is 
subsequently  bound  into  bundles  and  baled 
in  a  special  press,  for  which  doubtless  an 
ordinary  cotton  press  could  be  substituted. 

74.  Enemies.  —  Rye,  like  wheat,  is  in- 
jured by  the  Hessian  fly,  but  has  a  smaller 
number  of  insect  enemies  than  most  grains. 
Among  its  fungous  diseases  is  ergot  (Fig. 
26),  which  causes  the  affected  grains  to  enlarge  and  project 
conspicuously  from  the  head,  such  grain  constituting  a  poi- 
sonous food.  Preventive  measures  consist  in  avoiding  the 
use  of  seed  rye  containing  such  diseased  grains  and  in  sowing 


FIG.  26.  —  ERGOT 
IN  A  HEAD  OF 
RYE. 


74 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


rye  on  a  field  where  there  has  not  before  been  ergot  on  rye, 
nor  on  any  of  the  related  wild  grasses.  Fortunately,  ergot 
is  not  very  common  in  the  South. 

II.     BARLEY  —  HORDEUM    SATIVUM 

Barley  is  an  annual  grain  of  comparatively  slight  im- 
portance in  the  cotton-belt.  In  regions  where  it  is  grown 
for  seed  production,  the  grain  is  utilized  chiefly  in  the  pro- 
duction of  beer,  and  great  pains  is  taken  to  produce  a 
grain  of  the  highest  quality  and  free 
from  weather  stain  or  other  injury. 

The  chief  use  of  barley  in  the  South 
is  for  pasturage  and  as  a  soiling  plant. 
It  is  sown  in  the  same  way  as  rye. 
Green  barley  is  considered  to  be  more 
palatable  than  pastures  of  any  of  the 
other  small  grains,  but  the  amount  of 
pasturage  per  acre  Is  usually  smaller 
than  that  from  rye. 

75.  Description.  —  Barley  has  the 
shortest  straw  of  any  of  the  small 
grains.  The  heads  are  usually  armed 
with  strong,  long,  spreading  beards, 
that  grow  from  the  tips  of  the  glumes 
(Fig.  27).  In  spite  of  this  objection, 
barley  is  used  in  California  as  a  hay 
plant,  but  its  use  necessitates  the 
frequent  removal  of  the  beards  from 
the  gums  of  the  horses  consuming  it. 
The  clasps  at  the  junction  of  leaf- 
BABLEY.  sheath  and  leaf-blade  are  larger  on 


EYE  AND  BARLEY 


75 


the  barley  plant  than  on  any  other  of 
the  small  grains  (Fig.  28). 

The  hull  of  the  barley  grain  grows  tight 
to  the  kernel,  and  the  grain,  instead  of 
being  roundish,  as  in  oats,  has  a  dis- 
tinctly ribbed  or  angular  appearance. 

The  weight  of  barley  is  48  pounds  per 
bushel. 

76.    Composition.  —  The  following 
figures  are  quoted  from  H.  R.  Smith's 
"Profitable  Stock  Feeding"  to  show  the 
relative  composition  of  the  seed  or  grain  FIG.  28.— THE  LARGE 
of  barley,  rye,  wheat,  oats,  and  Indian     CLASPS  OF  BARLEY 
corn :  — 


LEAF. 


PROTEIN 

FAT 

CRUDE 
FIBER 

CARBO- 
HYDRATES 

Barley,  grain  * 

12.4 

1.8 

2.7 

69.8 

Rye,  grain  «    . 

Wheat,  grain  ,    , 

10.6 
12.0 

1.7 
2.0 

1.7 
2.0 

72.5 
71.5 

Oats,  grain  . 

11.8 

5.0 

9.5 

59.7 

Corn,  dent  

10.3 

5.0 

2.2 

70.4 

These  figures  show  that  barley  is  a  nutritious  grain.  In  cooler 
countries  where  its  yield  is  greater  than  in  the  South  it  is  prized 
as  a  food  for  hogs,  since  it  produces  a  firm  and  excellent  quality 
of  pork. 

77.  Species  and  varieties.  —  Some  authorities  divide 
barley  into  several  species,  depending  on  whether  the 
grains  are  arranged  in  2,  4,  or  6  rows,  thus  giving  the  name 
of  2-rowed,  4-rowed,  and  6-rowed  barley.  There  is  also 


76 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


a  form  of  naked  barley  in  which  the  hulls  do  not  adhere 
to  the  kernels;  unfortunately,  the  yield  of  this  kind  is 
small. 

Beardless  barley  has  excited  some  interest.  Its  chief  ad- 
vantage is  its  earliness  and  the  absence  of  beards  (Fig.  29) . 
Its  disadvantages  are  small  yield  of  grain, 
weak  straw,  small  number  of  stems  produced, 
and  extreme  tenderness,  or  susceptibility  to 
winter-killing.  Even  in  the  central  part  of 
the  Gulf  States  this  variety  requires  sowing 
after  Christmas.  It  is  the  earliest  of  any  of 
the  small  grains  tested  at  the  Alabama  Ex- 
periment Station,  but  is  scarcely  practicable 
except  on  a  small  scale  and  on  rich  land. 

78.    Soils  and  fertilizers.  —  Barley  requires 
a  richer  soil  than  any  of  the  other  small 
grains.     It  prefers  a  limestone  soil,  and  on 
acid  lands  the  use  of  lime  is  usually  advan- 
tageous.     The   fertilizer    should   be  either 
stable  manure  or  a  mixture  of  commercial 
fertilizers      containing      nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid,  and  potash. 

79.  Sowing.  —  In  the  central 
part  of  the  cotton-belt,  barley 
may  be  sown  at  any  date  between 
September  1  and  December  1. 
For  sowing  broadcast  to  afford 
pasturage  it  is  advisable  to  use 
2^  bushels  of  seed  per  acre.  For 

grain  production,  or  for  sowing  in  drills  as  a  soiling  crop, 
1^-  to  2  bushels  per  acre  is  sufficient. 


RYE  AND  BARLEY  77 

80.  Enemies.  —  Since  barley  is  the  first  of  the  small 
grains  to  ripen,  it  is  devoured  by  birds.  It  is  subject  to 
two  kinds  of  smut.  For  the  prevention  of  the  loose  smut 
of  barley,  evidenced  by  conspicuous  black  heads,  without 
grain,  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  recommends  the 
following  treatment  of  the  seed :  "  Soak  for  12  hours  in 
cold  water;  then  scald  the  seed  at  130°  F.,  for  not  over 
6  minutes.  Sow  the  seed  the  same  day." 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

(1)  Make  a  drawing  of  a  spikelet  of  rye. 

(2)  Make  a  drawing  of  a  spikelet  of  barley. 

(3)  Practice  the  separation  of  a  mixture  of  grains  of  barley, 
rye,  wheat,  and  oats. 

(4)  Write  out  the  two  most  conspicuous  differences  between 
a  head  of  rye  and  one  of  barley  ;  the  one  most  conspicuous  dif- 
ference between  a  head  of  bearded  wheat  and  of  bearded  barley. 

LITERATURE 
Rye. 

KILGORE,  B.  W.,  and  others.  N.  C.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bui.  Vol.  30,  No.  8. 
VAN  WAGEMAN,  J.,  JR.  Bailey's  Cyclo.  Agr.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  559-563. 
SARGENT,  F.  L.  Corn  Plants.  Boston. 

Barley. 

SARGENT,  F.  L.     Corn  Plants.    Boston. 
MOORE,  R.  A.    Bailey's  Cyclo.  Agr.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  202-206. 


CHAPTER  IV 
CORN  OR  MAIZE  (ZEA  MAYS)  —  STRUCTURE 

CORN  belongs  to  the  great  family  of  grasses,  which  also 
includes,  besides  the  ordinary  grasses,  sorghum,  sugar-cane, 
and  the  small  grains.  It  is  a  large  annual  plant,  making  its 
growth  in  the  warmer  part  of  the  year  and  is  easily  killed 
by  freezing  temperatures. 

The  word  "  corn ' '  in  Europe  means  any  kind  of  grain.  In 
the  United  States,  the  word  applies  only  to  Indian  corn  or 
maize.  Most  authorities  think  that  this  plant  originated 
in  the  southern  part  of  Mexico.  It  has  few  near  relatives 
among  either  wild  or  cultivated  plants.  Its  nearest  cul- 
tivated relative  is  teosinte,  a  tropical  forage  plant  which 
is  of  some  value  in  the  southern  part  of  the  United  States. 

Corn  is  the  largest  and  most  valuable  single  crop  grown 
in  the  United  States,  occupying  more  than  twice  the  acre- 
age devoted  to  wheat  and  three  times  that  occupied  by 
cotton.  Its  most  important  use  is  as  a  food  for  live-stock, 
for  which  both  the  grain  and  all  parts  of  the  vegetative 
portion  of  the  plant  are  employed. 

Corn  also  constitutes  an  important  article  of  human 
food.  In  the  South  corn-bread  is  largely  consumed,  and 
in  all  parts  of  the  United  States  numerous  other  articles 
for  human  consumption  are  made  from  the  corn  grain, 
such  as  breakfast  foods  and  cornstarch.  The  oil  extracted 

78 


79 


80  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

from  the  grain  is  used  as  a  lubricant  and  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  a  substitute  for  rubber.  The  pith  from  the  stalk  is 
employed  as  a  packing  material  in  the  construction  of 
warships.  Corn  and  its  by-products  are  also  used  in 
many  other  ways. 

STRUCTURE 

81.  Roots.  —  The  root  system  of  the  corn  plant  con- 
sists of  a  number  of  long,  slender,  branched,  fibrous  roots. 
There  is  no  tap-root.  A  whorl  of  roots  develops  near  the 
germinating  grain,  but  the  main  system  springs  from  the 
crown  of  the  plant,  which  usually  develops  about  1  inch 
below  the  surface.  Therefore,  the  depth  of  rooting  of 
corn  is  largely  independent  of  the  depth  at  which  the 
grain  is  planted. 

As  a  rule,  most  of  the  main  feeding  roots  originate 
in  the  stratum  comprised  between  2  inches  and  4  inches 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground  (Figs.  30  and  31).  These 
usually  grow  out  almost  horizontally  for  some  distance, 
and  then,  if  the  soil  permits,  many  of  them  bend  down- 
ward, while  some  of  the  smaller,  secondary  roots  occupy 
the  surface  layer  of  soil.  Corn  roots  do  not  penetrate  so 
deeply  in  most  Southern  soils  as  in  other  parts  of  the 
country.  The  depth  at  which  roots  feed  seems  to  depend 
chiefly  on  the  supply  of  moisture  and  air  in  the  soil. 

The  roots  of  corn  are  frequently  as  long  as  the  plant  is 
tall.  Indeed,  the  roots  may  lap  across  the  rows  before  the 
plant  is  1  foot  high,  so  that  deep  cultivation,  even  at  this 
early  stage,  may  break  many  roots. 

Besides  the  feeding  roots  just  mentioned,  the  corn  plant 
usually  develops,  at  the  first  few  nodes  or  joints  just  above 


81 


82 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


the  surface,  a  series  of  brace-roots  (Fig.  32) .  These  slope 
downward  and  outward,  and  on  reaching  the  soil  they  serve 
the  purpose  of  bracing  ^_  the  plant.  On  enter- 
ing the  soil,  the  brace-  H  roots  become  smaller 
and  help  to  supply  the  plant  HL  with  food  and  water. 
82.  Stem.  —  The  stem  ^B  of  the  corn  plant  is 
solid  or  filled  with  pith,  •  and  tapers  to  the  top. 
The  usual  height  is  5  to  •  15  feet.  A  height 

above  10  feet  is  probably  an  H  indication  of  wasted 


FIG.  32. — BRACE-BOOTS  ON  THE  CORN  PLANT. 

On  the  paper  at  the  bottom  of  the  picture  are  two  detached  brace-roots, 
showing  how  they  branch  in  the  soil. 

energy,  the  proportion  of  stem  being  larger  than  necessary 
to  the  production  of  the  maximum  amount  of  grain. 

Since  the  corn  plant  must  stand  much  strain  from  wind,  it 
is  so  constructed  as  to  resist  or  escape  or  withstand  wind  pressure. 
For  example,  devices  for  this  purpose  are  found  in  the  tapering 
stem,  the  presence  of  brace-roots,  the  strength  of  the  outer  layer 
or  rind,  the  solid  partitions  at  the  nodes,  and  the  peculiar  form  of 
the  leaf. 


CORN  STRUCTURE  8S 

The  stem  consists  of  internodes  of  variable  length,  separated 
by  solid  partitions  at  the  nodes  or  joints.  The  internodes  on 
certain  parts  of  the  plant  are  grooved,  which  seems  to  be  a  pro- 
vision for  accommodating  the  shank,  or  ear  branch.  When  shoots 
or  ears  arise,  they  spring  from  a  bud  at  the  base  of  this  groove. 
This  bud  is  completely  enwrapped  by  the  leaf-sheath,  which 
serves  to  protect  it. 

Under  some  conditions,  partly  dependent  on  variety,  character 
of  season,  and  distance  between  plants,  "suckers"  or  basal 
branches  spring  from  the  buds  on  the  main  stem  near  the  crown. 
These  suckers  afterwards  develop  independent  root  systems. 
Removal  of  such  suckers  is  an  important  cultural  operation  in  the 
South,  since  they  take  up  water  and  plant-food  needed  by  the 
parent  plant.  Their  removal  from  Northern  corn-fields  is  less  im- 
portant, for  there  several  plants  may  be  safely  grown  in  each  hill. 

The  tendency  of  individual  corn  plants  to  sucker  is  hereditary ; 
thus  Hartley  found  that  when  both  the  male  and  female  parents 
produced  suckers,  14\  per  cent  of  the  offspring  developed 
suckers ;  while  only  2|  per  cent  of  the  plants  bore  suckers  in  the 
case  of  those  stalks  neither  of  whose  parents  had  produced  suckers. 
Therefore,  in  selecting  corn  plants  for  seed,  preference  should  be 
given  in  the  South  to  those  free  from  suckers. 

83.  Leaves.  —  The  corn  plant  is  supplied  with  a  con- 
siderable number  of  long,  broad,  tapering  leaves.  The 
number  is  most  frequently  twelve  to  eighteen ;  and  a  leafy 
plant  is  probably  desirable.  The  main  uses  or  functions  of 
leaves  are  (1)  to  take  up  from  the  air  its  carbon  dioxid 
for  use  in  building  up  the  tissues  of  the  plant,  and  (2)  to 
throw  off  the  surplus  water  into  the  air,  thus  helping  to 
lift  other  supplies  of  soil  moisture  to  the  leaves  with  the 
contained  plant-food.  For  these  two  purposes,  the  leaf 
is  provided  with  immense  numbers  of  minute  openings  or 
pores  (stomata).  These  stomata  are  especially  numer- 
ous on  the  under  sides  of  leaves ;  each  pore  or  stomate  is 


84  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CKOPS 

provided  with  an  arrangement  by  which,  in  dry  weather, 
the  size  of  the  opening  is  reduced,  thus  decreasing  the 
amount  of  water  thrown  off  by  the  leaf. 

The  corn  leaf  has  also  another  means  of  economizing  in  the 
transpiration  of  moisture.  This  is  seen  in  the  rolling  together  of 
leaves  in  the  middle  of  a  hot  dry  day.  This  curling,  or  rolling, 
of  the  leaves  is  due  to  the  presence  of  special  cells,  which,  on 
parting  with  a  portion  of  their  moisture  in  dry  weather,  cause  the 
leaf  to  fold  inward. 

In  the  South,  the  corn  plant  is  especially  liable  to  lose  pre- 
maturely the  use  of  its  leaves  through  their  drying,  or  "firing." 
This  may  be  due  to  dry  weather,  to  inadequate  preparation  of  the 
soil,  to  lack  of  proper  cultivation,  to  root  pruning,  or  to  other 
causes. 

The  leaf  consists  of  two  principal  parts  :  the  sheath,  or  that 
part  which  is  clasped  around  a  portion  of  the  stem,  and  the  blade, 


FIG.  33.  —  PART  OF  A  CORN  LEAF,  SHOWING  WAVY  MARGINS. 

or  free  part  of  the  leaf.  The  outer  margin  of  the  blade  is  wavy 
or  scalloped  (Fig.  33).  This  permits  the  leaf  to  turn  from  the 
wind  like  a  windmill  thrown  out  of  gear,  and  thus  to  avoid 
throwing  too  great  a  strain  on  the  stem. 

84.  Ear-branch  and  shucks.  —  The  shank  on  which  the 
ear  is  borne  represents  a  branch.  That  this  is  a  branch  is 
apparent  (1)  from  its  position  in  the  angle  between  the 
stem  and  the  leaf -sheath ;  (2)  by  the  fact  that  the  shank 
has  nodes  similar  to  those  of  the  main  stem ;  and  (3)  by 


CORN  STRUCTURE  85 

the  fact  that  most  of  these  nodes  bear  a  shuck  or  husk, 
which  is  only  a  modified  leaf,  as  will  readily  be  seen  by 
noting  that  many  shucks  are  tipped  with  a  small  leaf-blade 

(Fig.  34). 

It  is  supposed  that  the  shank  which  now  bears  the  ear  was  once 
a  long  branch,  and  that  shortening  of  the  branches  occurred  both 


FIG.  34.  —  AN  EAR  OF  CORN  ON  WHICH  LEAF-BLADES  ARE  BORNE  ON 
THE  TiPS  OF  MANY  OF  THE  SHUCKS. 

by  man's  selection  and  by  natural  selection.  For  example, 
those  plants  with  shortest  branches  would  be  the  ones  most  likely 
to  propagate  their  kind  in  nature,  because  these  branches  would 
less  frequently  break  off  before  maturing  the  seed.  For  the 
same  reason,  selection  by  man  would  also  tend  to  preserve  the 
plants  with  shortest  branches. 


86  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 

85.  Number  of  ears.  —  The  number  of  ears  to  a  plant 
varies  greatly,  according  to  the  race  of  corn,  the  variety, 
the  soil  and  fertilization,  and  the  character  of  the  season. 
In  the  ordinary  or  dent  varieties,  the  number  seldom  ex- 
ceeds seven  and  is  more  frequently  one  or  two  ears  for  each 
plant. 

Many  experiments  at  the  Alabama  and  North  Carolina 
Experiment  Stations  have  indicated  that  in  the  South 
those  varieties  of  dent  corn  are  most  productive  of  grain 
that  ordinarily  bear  two  ears  to  the  plant. 

86.  Position  of  the  ear.  —  Large  yields  of  corn  are  made 
from  varieties  bearing  ears  at  a  medium  height  from  the 
ground,  while  equally  large  yields  are  made  from  other 
varieties,  the  ears  of  which  are  borne  at  a  greater  distance 
above  the  ground.     Other  things  being  equal,  a  moderate 
height  of  ear  is  preferable,  say,  four  feet  above  the  ground 
in  the  case  of  a  tall  plant,  or  even  less  in  the  case  of  a  low 
plant  (Fig.  35) .     The  chief  advantages  of  a  low  or  medium 
position  of  ear  are  the  following :   (1)  a  decreased  tend- 
ency for  the  ear  to  pull  the  plant  down,  and  (2)  greater 
ease  in  harvesting  the  ear  in  the  lower  position.     A  low 
ear  is  also  apt  to  accompany  a  stalk  of  only  medium  size, 
which  is  desirable.     A  low  ear,  also,  usually  implies  earlier 
maturity. 

The  shank  of  the  ear  should  be  of  such  size  and  length 
as  to  let  the  ear  droop,  or  bend  straight  down,  so  as  to 
protect  the  tip  of  the  ear  from  rain  and  to  avoid  the  tend- 
ency exerted  by  an  outward-pointing  ear  to  pull  down  the 
stalk.  This  means  that  the  shank  should  be  of  medium 
diameter.  It  should  not  be  very  long. 

87.  Tassel.  —  The  tassel  consists  of  a  panicle,  or  spread- 


FIG.  35.  —  DIFFERENCES  IN  HEIGHT  AND  POSITION  OF  EAR  IN  THE 
SAME  VARIETY. 

On  right,  ears  low  and  hanging  down  ;  next,  ears  too  high  ;  next,  ear- 
shanks  too  long  ;  on  extreme  left,  the  shank  is  too  short  and  stocky, 
causing  the  mature  ears  to  point  upward. 

87 


88  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

ing  flower-cluster,  usually  borne  at  the  extreme  top  of  the 
plant.  This  panicle  carries  the  male  or  pollen-bearing 
flowers,  which  are  usually  in  groups  of  two  flowers  in  a 
spikelet.  Each  flower,  on  maturing,  pushes  forth  three 
anthers,  or  pollen  cases,  from  which,  on  maturing,  the  fine 
particles  of  pollen  are  set  free,  to  be  borne  by  the  wind  to 
the  silks  of  other  corn  plants.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
a  single  tassel  may  bear  more  than  40,000,000  pollen- 
grains. 

The  tassel  usually  appears  two  to  four  days  before  the 
first  silks  are  visible  on  the  same  plant ;  this  is  a  device  to 
prevent  the  pollination  of  the  silk  by  the  pollen  from  the 
same  plant. 

Numerous  experiments  have  shown  that  the  removal 
of  the  tassels  on  half  of  the  plants  in  a  field  does  not  ma- 
terially influence  the  yield. 

88.  Silks.  —  Each  silk  originates  where  a  grain  should 
be  borne  on  the  cob,  from  which  position  it  grows  until  its 
outer  part  reaches  the  air,  beyond  the  tip  of  the  shuck. 
This  free  part  of  the  silk  is  supplied  with  very  minute 
hairs,  the  purpose  of  which  is  to  entangle  and  hold  the 
grains  of  pollen.     (See  Fig.  36,  A.)     In  case  a  silk  fails  to 
receive  pollen,  it  may  continue  to  grow  to  unusual  length. 
In  case  no  pollen  lodges  on  any  particular  silk,  no  grain 
is   formed   at  the  point  on  the  cob  where  that  silk  is 
attached. 

89.  Pollination.  —  Pollination  is  the  transfer  of  pollen 
to  the  sticky  surface  of  the  stigma,  which  in  this  case  is 
the  silk.     Along  the  entire  length  of  the  silk  grows  the 
pollen-tube    (Fig.   36),  thrown  out   by  the  pollen-grain 
after  lodgment  on  the  silk, 


CORN  STRUCTURE 


89 


FIG.  36.  —  DIAGRAM  SHOWING  COURSE  OF  THE  POLLEN-TUBE  THROUGH 
SILK  TO  OVARY. 

A,  section  near  outer  end  of  silk,  showing  pollen-grain  and  pollen-tube  ; 

B,  section  through  base  of  silk  and  through  young  grain.     (Drawing  by 

C.  S.  Ridgway.) 


The  pollination  of  corn  is  effected  almost  entirely  by 
the  wind,  which  may  carry  the  pollen  great  distances. 


90 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CHOPS 


Hence,  fields  of  two  different  varieties  of  corn,  which 
the  farmer  desires  to  keep  unmixed,  should  not  be  planted 
at  ebout  the  same  date,  within  less  than  half  a  mile  of 
each  other,  unless  there  be  intervening  woods  or  other 
obstacles  to  the  blowing  of  the  pollen. 

90.  Impregnation  or  fertilization  of  the  grain.  —  The 
word  "  fertilization,"  as  used  in  this  paragraph,  does  not 
refer  to  the  supplying  of  food  or 
fertilizing  material  to  the  plant. 
Fertilization  of  the  flower  consists 
in  the  growing  of  the  pollen-tube 
along  the  entire  length  of  the 
silk  and  into  the  embryo-sac  (Fig. 
36),  and  its  union  there  with  the 
egg-cell  of  the  mother  plant  to 
produce  the  seed  (Fig.  37).  With- 
out such  a  union,  no  seed  is 
formed. 

After  the  pollen-grain  has  lodged 

FIG.  37.  — THE  EMBRYO-  ,.  ,  .  »  ,, 

SAC  IN  CORN  AT  THE  on  ™e  sticky  surf  ace  of  the  protrud- 
TIME  OF  FERTILIZATION,  ing  end  of  the  silk,  it  grows  into  that 
pt.,  pollen-tube  which  silk  and  through  its  entire  length  to 

nud^^fTeggtu  the  P°int  wh«e  the  silk  originates. 

which,  after  union  with  There   the   pollen-tube    enters  the 

^^r":  embryo-sac  and  sets  free  two  male 

cieus  of  the  endosperm,  nuclei.   One  of  these  unites  with  the 

with  which   the   second  egg-cell,  effecting  true  fertilization 

male  nucleus  may  unite.  '        .          _& 

(Drawing  by  F.  E.  Lloyd.)   and  producing  the  germ  of  the  grain; 
the  other  male  nucleus  unites  with 

the  nucleus  of  the  endosperm  (Fig.  37) .   When  this  second 
union  occurs,   the  result  is  an  endosperm  that  derives 


CORN  STRUCTURE 


its  qualities  from  the  pollen-bearing  parent  as  well  as  from 
the  mother  plant. 

It  is  this  second  union  of  double  fer- 
tilization, which  occurs  in  some  plants, 
that  enables  the  pollen  of  a  yellow  variety 
of  dent  corn  to  produce  yellow  kernels  a 
few  weeks  after  fertilizing  the  silks  of  a 
white  variety.  This  is  because  the  yellow 
quality  has  been  given  by  the  male  par- 
ent to  the  endosperm,  or  main  part  of 
the  grain,  which  color  shows  as  yellow 
through  the  transparent  hull  or  bran 
that  covers  the  grain. 

91.  The  ear.  —  The  ear  varies  greatly 
in  length,  diameter,  and  number  of  rows 
of  grain.  Among  ordinary  or  dent  varie- 
ties, the  usual  number  of  rows  ranges 
between  twelve  and  twenty-four,  four- 
teen to  eighteen  being  most  common  in 
productive  varieties.  A  good  ear  of  corn 
should  bear  about  a  thousand  grains. 
The  number  of  rows  is  always  even,  a 
fact  which  has  a  satisfactory  explanation 
in  the  structure  and  evolution  of  the  cob 
and  pistils.  (See  Hunt's  "  Cereals  in 
America,"  p.  148.) 

The  best  ear  is  one  having  a  cob  not 
extremely  small,  since  this  would  not 
allow  a  sufficient  number  of  rows.     Neither   should  the 
cob  be  very  large,  since  this  tends  to  late  maturity  and 
to  the  rotting  of  the  ear  in  a  wet  fall. 


FIG.  38.  —  A  WELL- 
PROPORTIONED 
EAR  OP  A  HARD 
YELLOW  VARIETY. 


92  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

Many  corn-breeders  in  the  Northern  States  prefer  that 
the  circumference  of  the  ear  at  one  third  the  distance  from 
the  butt  be  three  fourths  the  length  of  the  ear.  However, 
the  best  proportions  of  an  ear  cannot  be  regarded  as  having 
been  determined  for  Southern  varieties  (Fig.  38). 

THE  CORN  GRAIN  OR  KERNEL 

92.  Shape.  —  The  kernel  of  corn  varies  greatly  in  shape 
and  size  with  the  different  races  of  corn.     There  are  even 
great  differences  within  the   same  variety  and  on  the 
different  parts  of  the  same  ear.     In  the  dent  varieties, 
practically  all  of  the  grains  are  flattened  and  somewhat 
wedge-shaped,    their    smallest    diameter    being    the    one 
parallel  to  the  cob.     Sturtevant  found  that  in  each  of  the 
races  of  corn  there  are  grains  of  three  different  subtypes : — 

Subtype  A,  grain  broader  than  deep ; 
Subtype  B,  grain  as  broad  as  deep; 
Subtype  C,  grain  much  deeper  than  broad. 

The  typical  grain  in  the  most  popular  dent  varieties  has 
the  last  shape;  that  is,  it  is  much  deeper  or  longer  than 
broad. 

93.  The  structure  of  the  grain.  —  The  grain  is  made  up 
of  a  number  of  parts  having  distinct  functions  and  separate 
origins.     As   a  means   of  simplification,   these   are  here 
grouped  into  three  parts:  — 

(1)  the  chit,  germ,  or  embryo ; 

(2)  the  endosperm,  or  main  bulk  of  the  grain ; 

(3)  the  seed  coats  or  bran. 

The  embryo,  or  germ,  is  situated  at  the  cob  end  of^the 


CORN  STRUCTURE  93 

grain,  under  the  depression  or  groove,  which  faces  the  tip 
of  the  ear.  It  comprises  about  one  eighth  of  the  weight  of 
the  grain.  It  is  especially  rich  in  fat. 

The  endosperm  (from  endon,  around,  and  sperma,  a  seed) 
is  that  large  portion  of  the  seed  lying  around  and  between 
the  embryo  and  the  several  outer  layers  or  coats  of  the  ker- 
nel. The  endosperm  constitutes  about  73  per  cent  of  the 
weight  of  the  entire  grain  and  is  that  part  of  the  grain 
which  gives  to  corn  its  value  as  a  starchy  food.  The  endo- 
sperm consists  chiefly  of  starch,  but  contains  also  some 
protein,  ash,  and  other  materials. 

This  starch  of  the  endosperm  is  arranged  in  two  different 
ways,  giving  two  very  different  appearances  to  the  different 
parts  of  the  same  endosperm.  When  this  starch  is  loosely 
arranged,  the  color  of  that  part  is  a  pure  snow-white,  of  an 
opaque  floury  appearance.  On  the  other  hand,  when  it  is 
arranged  in  compact  form,  the  appearance  is  that  of  a  horny 
or  nearly  translucent  substance,  which  is  called  the  horny, 
or  corneous  layer. 

The  coats  of  the  kernel,  which  are  usually  together  re- 
moved in  the  form  of  bran,  are  several  in  number,  each 
having  separate  function  and  origin. 

94.  Judging  the  composition  of  the  kernel  by  its  cross- 
section.  —  The  investigations  of  Hopkins  and  of  Willard 
have  shown  that  by  cutting  transversely  through  a  grain 
of  corn,  one  may  judge  of  its  probable  richness  in  fat,  in 
starch,  or  in  protein,  by  the  thickness  of  the  several  layers 
constituting  the  germ,  the  loose  floury  starch,  and  the 
compact  horny  starch  (Fig.  39).  A  large  germ  indicates 
a  high  percentage  of  fat,  which  is  important  when  the  corn 
is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  corn  oil.  A  thick  layer  of  the 


94  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

loose  floury  material  indicates  a  high  percentage  of  starch. 
Unusual  thickness  of  the  horny  layer  implies  a  relatively 
high  percentage  of  protein;  this  is  because  this  compact 
layer,  though  composed  chiefly  of  starch,  is  also  rich  in 
protein.  In  the  selection  of  seed  corn  practical  use  can 
be  made  of  the  facts  just  mentioned. 
In  spite  of  these  differences  in  appearance,  accompanied 

by  differences  in  com- 
position, in  the  differ- 
ent grains  of  the  same 
FIG.  39.— TRANSVERSE  SECTION  THROUGH     variety,  analysis  shows 
CORN  GRAIN  ;  LARGE  GERMS  IN  2  KER-      little  difference  be- 

NELS  ON  THE   LEFT  AND   SMALL  GERMS  i-jv 

IN  2  KERNELS  ON  THE  RIGHT.  tween  <™erent  varie- 

ties, even  when  they 

differ  considerably  in  the  appearance  of  cross-sections  of 
their  grains. 

There  is  probably  no  necessity  for  the  Southern  farmer 
to  select  corn  with  special  reference  to  increasing  the  yield 
of  protein  or  of  fat.  For  it  is  easy  for  him  to  grow 
legumes  for  feeding  with  corn  to  counteract  its  deficiency 
in  protein.  The  manufacture  of  corn  oil  is  not  important 
in  the  South. 

95.  Location  of  the  color  in  the  corn  kernel.  —  It  is  im- 
portant to  learn  in  what  layer  the  color  is  located  in  the 
different  classes  of  corn,  so  that  one  may  understand  that 
part  of  corn  breeding  which  relates  to  the  heredity  of  the 
color  of  the  grain. 

The  hull,  or  bran,  of  the  grain  of  white  and  yellow 
varieties  of  dent  corn  is  colorless  or  translucent;  hence 
the  color  of  white  or  yellow  grains  lies  deeper,  namely, 
in  the  endosperm.  The  pollen  from  a  yellow  variety  may 


CORN  OR  MAIZE  95 

promptly,  or  in  the  current  cross,  give  a  yellow  color  to  the 
endosperm  of  the  cross-pollinated  grains  of  a  white  variety 
(see  Par.  90) .  Since  the  hull  in  this  case  is  transparent, 
the  yellow  endosperm  shows  through  and  the  grain  appears 
yellow. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  red  color  sometimes  appearing 
in  dent  varieties  is  due,  not  to  a  colored  endosperm,  but  to 
red  color  in  the  hull.  Hence  the  red  in  the  hull  obscures 
whatever  color  there  might  be  in  the  endosperm  (for  ex- 
ample, yellow),  and  determines  the  color  of  the  grain.  But 
the  pollen  does  not  in  the  current  cross  affect  the  hull, 
so  that  impregnation  of  white  grains  by  pollen  from  red 
varieties  does  not,  like  the  use  of  yellow  pollen,  show  a  few 
months  after  fertilization,  but  must  wait  to  show  the  red 
color  of  the  male  parent  in  the  next  generation. 

The  color  that  is  responsible  for  the  blue,  purple,  or  lead- 
colored  appearance  of  certain  kinds  of  sweet  and  soft 
corns,  which  are  different  races  from  ordinary  or  dent  corn, 
is  located  in  the  outer  part  of  the  endosperm,  or  just  be- 
neath the  hull.  The  color,  being  in  the  endosperm,  is  sub- 
ject to  double  fertilization,  and  hence  to  the  immediate 
display  of  the  color  of  the  pollen-bearing  parent.  A  lead- 
colored  corn  planted  near  a  white  may  immediately  cause 
colored  grains  to  appear  on  white  ears  all  over  the  field. 

LABORATORY   EXERCISES 
Roots. 

(1)  Plant  10  grains  of  corn  1  inch  deep  and  other  similar  lots  at 
depths  of  1,  2,  4,  and  5  inches  below  the  surface,  either  in  a  box 
of  soil  or  in  the  garden  or  field  :  — 

(a)  Record  the  number  of  days  after  planting  before  each 
plant  appears. 


96  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 

(6)  In  about  4  weeks  dig  some  plants  resulting  from  each 
depth  of  planting,  making  drawings  showing  the 
position  of  the  principal  roots  developed  from  each 
depth  of  planting. 

(2)  Carefully  dig  well-grown  or  even  mature    corn  plants, 
washing  the  earth  from  around  the  roots. 

(a)  At  what  distance  below  the  surface  do  most  of  the 

roots  originate  ? 

(6)  Count  and  record  the  number  of  main  roots, 
(c)  From  how  many  of  the  joints  or  nodes  do  the  true 

roots  and  brace-roots  spring  ? 

(3)  Make  two  sketches,  one  showing 

(a)  location  of  main  roots  where  corn  was  planted  in  a 
furrow  and  earth  subsequently  thrown  to  it,  and 

(6)  location  of  main  roots  on  a  plant  which  has  not  been 
planted  in  a  trench  nor  had  earth  thrown  to  it. 

Brace-roots. 

(4)  On  well-grown  corn  plants  or  on  old  corn  stalks,  examine 
the  brace-roots,  noting 

(a)  their  number ; 

(6)  number  of  nodes  from  which  they  spring ; 

(c)  diameter  just  above  the  ground,  and 

(d)  diameter  1  or  2  inches  below  the  surface. 

Stems. 

(5)  Examine  the  bent  portion  of  a  number  of  well-grown  corn 
plants  or  old  corn  stalks  which  have  been  blown  down,  and  sub- 
sequently straightened,  to  discover  how  the  plant  effected  this 
bending  by  growing  more  rapidly  on  one  side  than  on  the  other. 
Make  a  sketch  of  one  such  uneven  node. 

(6)  Strip  the  leaves  and  leaf-sheaths  from  a  corn  stalk  and 
record  the  length  of 

(a)  the  lowest  internode  ; 

(6)  the  internode  just  below  the  shank  of  the  lower  ear, 
and 

(c)  the  length  of  the  internode  next  to  the  tassel. 


CORN  STRUCTURE  97 

(7)  Record  the  total  number  of  internodes  and  their  average 
length  on 

(a)  a  tall  plant  and  on 

(6)  a  low  plant  in  the  same  field. 

Leaves. 

(8)  (a)  Record  the  number  of  leaves  on  an  average  corn  plant. 
(6)  In  how  many  vertical  ranks  are  these  arranged  ? 

(9)  (a)  Measure  the  midrib   of  an  average  full-grown  leaf 

and  the  margin  of  the  same,   to  determine  how 
much  longer  the  margin  is. 

(6)  By  moving  the  leaves  about,  try  to  ascertain  how  the 
margin  helps  the  leaves  to  avoid  the  pressure  of  the 
wind. 

(c)  Measure  the  approximate  surface  in  square  inches  on 

the  two  surfaces  of  a  grown  corn  leaf  of  average  size. 

(d)  From  (8  a)  and  (9  c)  calculate  the  probable  number  of 

square  feet  of  leaf  surface  on  4000  corn  plants  borne 
on  an  acre. 

Ear-shanks. 

(10)  (a)  Record   the  number  of    nodes  between  main  stem 

and  cob  on  a  long  ear-shank. 

(6)  Record  the  average  length  of  five  short  ear-shanks 
bearing  mature  ears,  and  note  whether  most  of  the 
ears  point  up  or  down. 
Grains. 

(11)  (a)  Soak  grains  of  corn  and  separate 'the  coats,  the  germ, 

and  the  endosperm.  . 

(6)  Cut  cross-wise  through  a  number  of  kernels  of  dry 
corn  and  compare  them  as  to  thickness  of  the 
horny  layer  and  as  to  size  of  germ. 

LITERATURE 

SARGENT,  F.  L.     Corn  Plants.    Boston. 

HARSHBERGER,  J.  W.    Bailey's  Cyclo.  Agr.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  398-402. 
HUNT,  T.  F.     Cereals  in  America.    New  York.     1904. 
HOPKINS,  C.  G.    111.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  87. 


CHAPTER  V 


CORN -COMPOSITION  AND  JUDGING 

THE  composition  of  dent  and  of  flint  corn,  and  of  yellow 
and  white  varieties  of  dent,  is  practically  the  same.  The 
corn  grain  contains  a  large  proportion  of  carbohydrates, 
or  starchy  material,  which  constitutes  its  chief  value  as 
food.  The  percentage  of  protein  is  so  -low  that  for 
some  classes  of  live-stock  corn  should  be  fed  in  connection 
with  some  food  rich  in  protein.  This  is  specially  true  for 
growing  pigs,  for  working  teams,  and  for  poultry.  Useful 
foods  for  feeding  with  corn  are  the  following :  — 

To  growing  pigs  :  skim  milk,  soybeans,  cowpeas,  dried 
blood,  tankage,  and  pasturage  consisting  largely  of  the 
clovers  and  related  plants. 

To  horses :  hay  of  the  clovers,  alfalfa,  cowpea,  vetches. 

To  poultry :  beef  scrap,  cowpeas,  and  fresh  bone. 

96.  Composition  of  corn  and  its  products.  —  The  follow- 
ing figures  represent  the  average  of  American  analyses  :  — 


WATER 

ASH 

PROTEIN 

CRUDE 
FIBER 

NITROGEN  — 

FREE   EXTRACT 

FAT 

Grain,  dent  varie- 
ties     .... 
Grain,  flint  varie- 
ties   

10.6 
103 

1.5 
1  4 

10.3 
105 

2.2 

1  7 

70.4 
70  1 

5.0 

50 

Corn  blades 
Corn  stover 
Corn  fodder 
Corn  silage 
Corn  bran  . 
Husks  (Shucks) 

30.0 
40.1 
42.2 
79.1 
9.1 
17.2 

5.5 
3.4 
2.7 
1.4 
1.3 
3.2 

6.0 
3.8 
4.5 
1.7 
9.0 
4.3 

21.4 
19.7 
14.3 
6.0 
12.7 
29.5 

35.7 
31.9 
34.7 
11.1 
62.2 
44.9 

1.4 
1.1 
1.6 

0.8 
5.8 
1.0 

CORN  COMPOSITION  99 

97.  Parts  of  the  corn  plant.  —  Corn  stover  is  the  residue 
of  stalk,  leaf,  and  shuck  after  the  removal  of  the  ear.     Corn 
fodder  is  the  entire  plant  when  grown  thickly  and  cured  for 
forage.     Corn  blades,  very  generally  known  in  the  South 
simply  as  "  fodder,"  are  the  leaves  stripped  from  the  plant 
just  before  the  ears  mature.     The  blades  make  a  very 
palatable  and  nutritious  food,  but  the  yield  is  small,  the 
labor  of  harvesting  considerable,  and  the  stripping  of  the 
blades  reduces  the  yield  of  grain. 

Corn  stover,  when  shredded,  has  somewhat  the  same 
value  as  cotton-seed  hulls,  the  composition  of  the  stover 
being  superior  but  the  hulls  mixing  better  with  concentrated 
foods  and  being  eaten  with  much  less  waste.  Stover 
should  be  fed  in  connection  with  cotton-seed  meal  or  other 
food  rich  in  protein. 

Corn  silage  consists  of  the  entire  plant  cut,  while  still 
green  but  after  the  roasting-ear  stage,  into  short  lengths 
and  stored  in  an  air-tight  compartment,  called  a  silo.  Here 
it  keeps  with  but  slight  loss  and  in  green,  succulent  condi- 
tion until  winter.  This  is  the  best  way  to  utilize  the  corn 
crop  for  dairy  cattle,  and  often  for  fattening  cattle. 

Silage  is  the  material  that  is  stored  ;  silo  is  the  receptacle  in 
which  it  is  stored  ;  ensilage  is  the  verb,  as  "  to  ensilage  corn," 
with  the  accent  on  the  middle  syllable.  The  terms  are  variously 
used  and  confused  in  current  speech  and  writing,  however. 

98.  Proportion  of  parts  in  the  corn  plant.  —  The  Georgia 
Experiment  Station  (Bui.  No.  30)  found  that  in  every 
100  pounds  of  the  above-ground  part  of  the  corn  plant, 
after  being  thoroughly  air-dried, 

the  grain  constituted  .  38.8  per  cent,  the  shucks  .11.1  per  cent, 
the  stalks  ....  29.3  per  cent,  the  tassels  .  1.3  per  cent, 
the  blades  ....  9.8  per  cent,  and  the  cobs  9.7  per  cent. 


100 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


99.  Corn  products.  —  From  the  corn  plant  are  made 
great  numbers  of  products.     Among  those  made  from  the 
grain  are  corn  meal,  grits,  hominy,  and  corn  flakes,  —  all 
for  human  food ;  also  whisky,  corn  oil,  glucose,  starch,  and 
many  others ;  and  for  stock  food,  gluten  meal,  corn  hearts, 
corn  bran,  and  others. 

The  pith  of  the  stalk  is  used  as  a  packing  material  in 
the  construction  of  warships.  From  the  stalk  cellulose  is 
manufactured.  All  parts  of  the  plant  are  used  as  food  for 
live-stock. 

100.  Draft  on  soil  fertility.  —  A  crop  of  40  bushels  of 
corn  and  2500  pounds  of  stover  removes  approximately 
the  following  amounts  of  plant-food :  — 


NITROGEN 

PHOSPHORIC  ACID 

POTASH 

40  bu.  grain  
3000  Ib.  stover  

37.0 
18.3 

15.9 
11.4 

12.8 

32.7 

Total  in  grain  and  stover  . 

55.3 

27.3 

45.5 

From  the  above  table  it  may  be  seen  that  every  bushel  of 
grain  removes  about  one  pound  of  nitrogen,  two  fifths 
of  a  pound  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  about  one  third  of  a 
pound  of  potash. 

These  figures  impress  the  need  of  the  corn  plant  for  nitro- 
gen, which  is  most  economically  supplied  in  a  preceding  soil- 
improving  or  leguminous  crop  (as  cowpeas),  or  in  manure. 

It  should  be  noticed  that  the  stover  removes  about  three 
times  as  much  potash  as  does  the  grain;  and  also  practi- 
cally half  as  much  nitrogen.  Hence  the  removal  of  the 
stover  greatly  increases  the  need  for  nitrogen  and  potash 
in  the  fertilizer  for  succeeding  crops. 


COEN 


u DOING     ;  v " t  \ J^  ] \  \  /ioi 


JUDGING  CORN 

101.  Score-card.  —  The  object  in  judging  ears  of  corn  is 
to  select  the  best  seed  corn.  Various  score-cards  have 
been  devised  as  helps  in  selecting  the  best  ears  by  applying 
a  scale  of  points  to  the  different  features. 

The  score-cards  in  use  in  different  states  vary  somewhat. 
Their  purpose  is  to  direct  attention  in  turn  to  each  of  the  points 
of  merit  or  demerit  of  each  ear.  A  perfect  ear,  if  such  an  ear 
existed,  would  score  100  points.  Deductions,  or  cuts,  are  made 
according  to  the  amount  of  deficiency  in  any  quality. 

In  the  following  table  are  printed  for  reference  score-cards 
used  in  several  Southern  and  Western  States  :  — 


ALABAMA 

1 
1 

MISSOURI 

SI 

M 

I 

s 

ILLINOIS 

KANSAS 

0 

3 
o 

1.  Uniformity  of  exhibit  •               •     . 

10 
5 
4 
10 

3 
3 
5 
10 
10 
5 
10 
5 

20 
100 

10 
5 
10 

5 

5 
10 
10 
20 

5 
5 

10 

5 
100 

15 
10 
5 
5 
10 
10 
5 
5 
5 
10 

5 
5 
10 
5 

100 

5 
10 
5 
5 
10 

5 
5 
5 
10 
10 
5 
10 
5 

5 

5 
100 

5 
10 
10 
5 
10 
5 
5 
5 
5 
15 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
10 

100 

5 
10 
10 

5 
5 
5 
10 
10 
5 
5 
5 
10 
10 

5 

100 

10 
5 
10 

5 

5 
10 
10 
20 

5 
5 

10 

5 
100 

10 
10 

5 
5 

10 
10 
10 
5 
5 
20 
5 

5 

100 

2.  Maturity  and  market  condition  .     . 
3.  Purity  as  shown  by  color  of  kernel    . 
4.  Purity  as  shown  by  color  of  cob  .     . 
5.  Shape  of  ear    "•  '•  !  • 

6.  Proportion,  length  to  circumference 
7.  Butts                                                .  x  . 

8.  Tips        ,: 

9.  Space  between  rows  ....•• 

10.  Per  cent  grain  to  ear                    -,     . 

12.  Space  between  kernels  at  cob  .     ..'«•' 
13.  Grain  —  (a)  shape 

(b)  uniformity     .... 
(c)  germ     
14.  Length  of  ear  i    . 

I  Weight  of  ear    .     . 
15.  Circumference  I                             .     • 

102 


SOUTHERN   FIELD   CROPS 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
Practice  in  scoring  ears  of  corn. 

Each  ear,  or  each  exhibit  of  10  ears,  should  be  scored  by  the 
score-card  above  used  in  the  state  nearest  the  reader's  home,  or  by 


FIG.  40. 


FIG.  41. 


FIG.  42. 


any  other  score-card  that  may  be  preferred.     Let  each  student, 
after  noting  the  excellencies  and  defects  of  all  ears  shown  in  this 


CORN  JUDGING 


103 


chapter,  score  a  number  of  ears  of  corn,  entering  the  figures  rep- 
resenting his  estimate  of  each  quality  in  the  proper  space  in  a  table 
ruled  or  printed  like  the  table  on  page  101.  Figs.  40-45  show 
defective  ears  of  Henry  Grady  corn  to  be  criticized  by  the  pupil. 


FIG.  43. 


FIG.  44. 


FIG.  45. 


The  following  paragraphs  indicate  some  of  the  most  important 
considerations  in  scoring  each  character:  — 

(1)  UNIFORMITY.  —  The  ear  examined  should  be  like  other  ears 
of  the  same  variety,  and  all  ears  of  one  exhibit  should  be  uniform 
in  size  and  appearance.  Criticize  Figs.  40-45  as  to  uniformity. 


104 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


(2)  VITALITY  AND  MARKET  CONDITION.  —  Good  germinating 
power  and  market  condition  is  shown  by  the  soundness  of  the 
grain  and  freedom  of  the  tip  of  the  grains  from  dark  spots,  adhering 
particles  of  husk,  shriveled  appearance,  or  undue  slenderness 
at  the  tip  near  the  cob.  Germination  tests  may  be  made. 


FIG.  46.  — A  GOOD  EAR, 
BUT  NOT  FREE  FROM 
SLIGHT  DEFECTS. 


FIG.  47. —  Too 
SHORT. 


FIG.  48.  —  DEFECTIVE 
IN  SHAPE,  TIP,  AND 
BUTT. 


(3)  All  grains  on  an  ear  should  be  of  the  same  color. 

(4)  COLOR  OF  COB.  —  A  white  cob  is  preferred  for  white  va- 
rieties.   Most  score-cards  prescribe  that  a  yellow  variety  shall 


CORN  JUDGING 


105 


have  a  red  cob,  which,  however,  is  merely  a  fancy  point.  How- 
ever, the  color  of  cob  should  be  uniform  for  every  ear  in  an 
exhibit. 

(5)  SHAPE  OF  EAR.  —  It  is  generally  assumed  that  a  nearly 


FIG.  49.  — Too 
SMALL. 


FIG.  50.  —  EAR  WITH 
ENLARGED  BUTT  AND 
WIDE  FURROWS  BE- 
TWEEN Rows. 


FIG.  51.  —  EAR  WITH 
BARE  TIP  AND  WIDE 
FURROWS. 


106 


SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 


cylindrical  shape  is  best;   but  at  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station 
tapering  ears  were  quite  as  productive  as  cylindrical  ears.     The 


FIG.  52. — AN  EAR  TOO  FIG.  53.  — A  TOO 
LONG  AND  SLENDER,  SLENDER  EAR, 
WITH  AN  INSTTFFI-  WITH  SHORT 
CIENT  NUMBER  OP  GRAINS,  BARE 
Rows.  TIP,  AND  WIDE 

FURROWS. 


FIG.  54. — AN  EAR  OF 
ONLY  MEDIUM  QUAL- 
ITY, BUT  WELL-COV- 
ERED TIP. 


ear  should  be  straight  and  even,  without  undue  swelling  at  the 
butt,  and  the  rows  should  be  straight. 


CORN  JUDGING 


107 


(6)  The  preferred  length  at  present  is  about  If  times  the  cm 
cumference,  taken  one  third  the  distance  from  the  butt.    Yet 


FIG.  55.  —  EAR  WITH 
CURVED  Rows,  BARE 
TIP,  AND  OTHEB 
FAULTS. 


FIG.    56.  — AN  EAR     FIG.  57.— AN  EAR  WITH 
WITH     FLINTY        VERY    HARD    -SHORT 
GRAINS  AND  A  DEFI- 
CIENT    NUMBER     OF 
Rows. 


GRAINS  OP  EX- 
PERIMENT STATION 
YELLOW  CORN. 


this  varies  with  different  varieties.    Compare  Fig.  46  with  Figs. 
47,  52,  and  53. 


108 


SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 


(7)  BUTTS  OF  EARS.  —  The  grains  on  the  butts  should  project 
slightly  and  evenly  beyond  the  cob,  forming  an  even,  well-rounded 
butt,  with  grains  not  very  variable  in  shape  and  size.  The  place 


FIG.  58. — EAR  WITH  LONG,  WELL- 
FORMED  GRAINS. 


FIG.  59.  —  EAR  WITH  SHORT 
GRAINS. 


of  attachment  of  the  ear  shank  should  be  of  moderate  diameter. 
Compare  Fig.  46  with  Fig.  50. 

(8)  TIPS  OF  EARS.  —  The  grains  should  as  nearly  as  possible 
hide  the  cob  at  the  tip  of  the  ear  and  should  there  be  of  fair  size. 


FIG.  60. — AN  EAR  HAVING  TOO 

MUCH  SPACE  BETWEEN  GRAINS 
NEAR  THE   COB. 


FIG.  61. — AN  EAR  IN  WHICH  THERE 
is  NO  LOST  SPACE  BETWEEN  GRAINS 

NEAR  THE  COB. 


Some  authorities  regard  a  well-covered  tip  as  rather  a  fancy 
point,  while  others  consider  it  as  closely  related  to  a  high  yield. 
Compare  Fig.  54  with  Figs.  51,  52,  53,  and  55. 

(9)  SPACE  BETWEEN  ROWS.  —  The  spaces,  furrows,  or  sulci  are  the 
depressions  between  adjacent  rows  of  grain  near  the  crown  of  the 
kernel.  The  deeper  and  wider  are  these  spaces,  the  more  defective 


CORN  JUDGING 


109 


!s  the  ear  in  this  respect  (Figs.  51,  52,  53,  and  54),  since  deep 
furrows  imply  rounded  grains  with  a  low  percentage  of  grain 
to  cob. 

(10)  PROPORTION  OF  CORN  ON  EAR.  —  Medium  to  small  cobs  and 
long  grains  indicate  a  high  percentage  of  corn  and  are  desirable. 
Compare  Figs.  58  and  59.    A  cut  or  deduction  may  be  made 
where  the  shelled  grain  constitutes  less  than 

86  per  cent  of  the  husked  ear. 

(11)  TRUENESS  TO  TYPE.  —  Every  ear  should 
possess  the  qualities  common  to  that  variety. 

(12)  SPACE    BETWEEN    KERNELS    NEAR    COB. 

—  This  is  judged  by  removing  several  rows  of 
grains  and  viewing  the  remaining  rows  from  a 
position  showing  the  edges  of  the  kernels  (Figs. 
60  and  61).  Much  space  between  the  grains 
near  the  cob  indicates  grains  of  poor  shape  and 
an  ear  of  low  percentage  of  grain,  and  some- 
times this  also  indicates  immaturity. 

(13)  KERNELS  (Figs.  62, 63).  —The  best  shape 
is  a  cut-off  wedge,  the  edges  of  the  grain  touch- 
ing the  adjacent   row  throughout  nearly  its 
whole  length.      The   shaulders  near  the   tip 
should   be   broad   and   plump.     The  kernels 
should  be  long  and  free  from  an  excessive 
amount  of  beak  or  shriveled  portion  at  the 
crown.    Excepting  those  at  the  extreme  butt 
and  tip,  the  grains  should  be  of  uniform  size 
and  shape  and  of  nearly  uniform  denting.     The 

color  of  all  grains  on  one  ear  should  be  identi-  middle  group,    ill- 
cal.     Yellow  varieties  should  have  grains  free   shaped ;  the  lower 
from  white  caps  and  grains  on  white  varieties   group    shows    one 
*       i  j    t_       •  „       .  ,  ,         very  large  and  one 

should  be   free    from  a  yellowish  or    amber  very  smaU  germ, 
tint. 

(14)  and  (15)  LENGTH  AND  CIRCUMFERENCE  OR  WEIGHT  OF  EAR. 
— This  refers  to  the  weight  of  grain  and  cob  after  thorough  air 
drying.    In  most  score-cards  this  is  covered  by  measurements  of 
the  length  and  circumference  of  each  ear.     The  standard  or  ideal 


FIG.  62.  —  SHOW- 
ING VARIATIONS 
AMONG  CORN 
GRAINS. 

Those  in  the 
upper  group  are 
well-shaped ;  in  the 


no 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


should  be  a  larger  ear  in  the  case  of  one-eared  than  in  the  case 
of  two-eared  varieties. 


FIG.  63.  —  VARIOUS  SHAPES  OF  CORN  KERNELS. 
Upper  kernels  have  good  and  all  others  poor  shapes. 

Composition  of  grains. 

(1)  From  a  crib  of  corn  select 

(a)  2  ears  having  a  high  percentage  of  protein,  as  shown  by 
thickness  of  horny  layer  (see  Par.  94)  in  grains  near  the  center 
of  the  ear ; 

(6)  2  having  a  low  percentage  of  protein,  and 

(c)  2  having  a  high  percentage  of  fat. 

(2)  Make  drawings  of  a  cross-section  of  3  grains  representing 
the  ears  selected  under  (a),  (6),  and  (c). 


CORN  JUDGING  111 

LITERATURE  ON  JUDGING  OP  CORN 

Iowa  Expr.  Sta.  Bui.  No.  77. 

Indiana  Expr.  Sta.  Bui.  No.  110. 

Missouri  Expr.  Sta.  Circ.  No.  19. 

Publications  of  a  number  of  other  experiment  stations  and  agricul- 
tural colleges. 

SHOESMITH,  V.  M.    The  Study  of  Corn.    New  York,  1910. 

LYON  and  MONTGOMERY.  Examining  and  Grading  Grains. 
Lincoln,  Neb. 


CHAPTER  VI 
CORN  — RACES  AND  VARIETIES 

MAIZE  has  varied  into  almost  numberless  forms,  ranging 
from  the  tall  corn  of  the  Southern  States  to  the  dwarf  of 
high  latitudes,  and  has  given  rise  to  many  shapes  and  sizes 
and  colors  of  kernel  and  ear.  Some  corn  is  very  early, 
some  late;  some  kinds  have  flinty  kernels  and  others 
have  very  soft  grains. 

102.  Races  of  corn.  —  Corn  is  divided  into  at  least  six 
great  divisions,  or  races,  which  cross  freely  with  each 

other.  These  races  are 
(1)  dent,  (2)  flint, 

FIG.  64.  — SECTIONS  ACROSS  GRAINS  OP  (3)  Sweet,  (4)  pop, 
CORN,  SHOWING  ARRANGEMENT  OF  (5)  goft  and  (g)  pocj 
HORNY  (SHADED)  AND  FLOURY  (DOTTED)  „,, 

LAYER  IN  EACH.  corn-     These  races  are 

From  left  to  right,  dent,  flint,  pop,  sweet,   distinguished  by  differ- 

and  soft  corn.  enceg  in  the    stmcture 

of  the  grains  (Figs.  64  and  65),  as  well  as  by  other  dis- 
tinctive characters. 

Dent  corn  comprises  all  the  varieties  commonly  grown  in 
the  fields  in  the  Southern  States.  Indeed,  the  bulk  of  the 
American  corn  crop  belongs  to  this  race. 

(1)  In  dent  corn  a  cross-section  of  the  grain  shows  that  the 
floury  or  soft  part,  consisting  chiefly  of  loosely  arranged 
starch  grains,  comes  quite  to  the  top  of  the  grain.  The 
shrinkage  of  this  soft  loose  starch  during  ripening  causes  the 

112 


CORN   VARIETIES 


113 


depression,  or  dent,  which  gives  the  name  to  the  dent  race. 
The  grains  of  dent  corn  are  usually  much  flattened  and 
wedge-shaped,  and  longer  or  deeper  than  broad.  The 
plant  may  be  small,  medium,  or  very  large,  Southern 
varieties  being  almost  invariably  large. 

(2)  In  flint  corn  the  layer  of  soft  loose  starch  does  not 
come  to  the  top  of  the  kernel  but  is  surrounded,  over  the 


FIG.  65.  —  SHOWING,  FROM  LEFT  TO  RIGHT,  SECTIONS  THROUGH  GRAINS 
OF  DENT,  FLINT,  POP,  SWEET,  AND  SOFT  CORN. 

The  shaded  area  represents  the  horny  layer ;  the  dotted  portion  shows 
the  floury  starch. 

top  as  well  as  on  the  sides,  by  a  horny  layer,  which  is  also 
made  up  chiefly  of  starch,  compacted  into  a  dense,  almost 
translucent  mass.  The  difference  between  the  horny  and 
the  loose  starch  has  been  likened  to  that  between  ice 
and  snow.  The  complete  arch  of  horny  starch  over  the 
top  of  the  grain  insures  the  ripening  of  the  kernel  without 
uneven  shrinking  or  denting.  The  grains  of  flint  corn  are 
usually  less  flattened,  shorter,  and  more  rounded  and 
smooth  over  the  top  and  broader  than  dent  corn.  The 
stalks  are  usually  small  and  the  ears  are  borne  near  the 
ground.  The  flint  corns  mature  quickly  and  are  best 
adapted  to  regions  near  the  northern  limits  of  corn  pro- 
duction. In  the  South  they  are  little  grown  and  com- 
paratively unproductive. 


114  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 

(3)  Sweet  'corn  may  be  known  by  its  wrinkled,  horny 
grain,   due  to  the  presence  of  sugar  in  the  endosperm, 
and  by  the  absence  of  floury  white  starch.     The  plant 
is  very  small  and  bears  many  small  ears,  which  mature  early. 
Sweet  corn  is  generally  grown  in  Southern  gardens,  but  is 
less  productive  here  than  in  higher  latitudes. 

(4)  Pop  corn  may  be  recognized  by  the  entire  absence  of 
floury  starch,  the  whole  endosperm  being  compact  and 
horny.     This  compactness  explains  why  the  grain  swells 
or  pops  so  completely.     The  plant  is  extremely  small,  the 
ears  numerous  and  of  diminutive  size,  maturing  early. 

(5)  Soft  corn  bears  a  grain  in  which  all  of  the  endosperm 
is  soft  and  white.     This  is  the  original  kind  cultivated  by 
the  Indians.     It  suited  their  needs  by  reason  of  the  ease 
with  which  it  could  be  ground.     It  is  not  now  cultivated  to 
any  extent  in  the  United  States.     The  ears  are  small  and 
the  grains  usually  small  and  rounded,  without  dents. 

(6)  Pod  corn  is  rather  a  curiosity  than  a  race  of  any 
value.     Each  single   grain  is  inclosed  in  a  small  shuck, 
while  the  whole  ear  or  collection  of  grains  is  wrapped  in  an 
outer  shuck.     This  is  probably  nearer  to  the  original  form 
of  the  plant  than  are  any  of  the  other  races. 

103.  Characters  needed  in  Southern  varieties.  —  Varie- 
ties of  field  corn  in  the  South  must  be  chosen  within  the 
dent  race.  The  primary  consideration  is  a  large  yield  of 
grain  per  acre.  Among  the  other  desirable  qualities  of  a 
variety  for  the  South  are  the  following :  — 

(1)  Medium  or  late  maturity,  in  order  that  there  may 
be  a  maximum  yield  and  to  escape  the  great  injury  done 
by  grain  weevils  to  the  early  varieties. 

(2)  At  least  a  medium  degree  of  hardness  of  kernel  to 


COEN   VARIETIES 


115 


FIG.  66.  —  SHOWING  AN  EAR  WITH 
TlP  WELL  COVERED  BY  SHUCKS. 
A  condition  unfavorable  to 
injury  by  weevils. 


FIG.  67.  —  SHOWING  AN  EAR  TIP 
NOT  WELL  COVERED  BY  SHUCKS. 
A  condition  favorable  to  injury 
by  weevil. 


116  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

avoid  the  excessive  injury  inflicted  by  weevils  on  varieties 
with  very  soft  grains. 

(3)  Tight  and  complete  covering  of  shuck  around  the 
tip  of  the  ear,  to  retard  the  entrance  of  weevils  and  to 
prevent  injury  from  wet  weather  (Figs.  66  and  67). 

(4)  Ears  falling  or  bending  down,  so  as  to  escape  severe 
injury  from  wet  weather. 

(5)  Ears  at  medium  height  from  the  ground,  so  that  the 
stalk  may  not  be  so  easily  blown  or  pulled  down  as  if  the 
ears  were  high. 

(6)  Small  or  medium-sized  cobs,  to  decrease  the  danger 
from  rotting  in  the  field  or  in  the  crib. 

(7)  Ear-shank  of  only  moderate  length  and  size. 

(8)  Uniformity  in  character  of  plant  and  ear,  this  being 
usually  an  indication  of  purity  and  of  careful  breeding. 

104.  Qualities  accompanying  high  yield.  —  The  follow- 
ing characteristics  usually  accompany  large  yields  of  grain 
in  varieties  adapted  to  the  South  :  — 

(1)  A  tendency  to  produce  two  ears  per  stalk; 

(2)  A  small  or  medium-sized  cob,  long  grains  of  a  wedge 
shape,  and  a  rather  high  percentage  of  grain; 

(3)  Medium  or  late  maturity. 

106.  General  considerations  regarding  varieties.  — 
The  color  of  the  grain  is  not  of  importance  in  the  case 
of  a  variety  intended  for  stock-food.  However,  for  the 
making  of  corn  meal,  the  Southern  markets  prefer  white 
corn.  Among  white  corns,  there  is  a  slight  preference 
among  millers  for  the  varieties  having  white  cobs.  The 
reason  for  this  is  the  experience  of  some  millers  that  in 
the  case  of  varieties  with  red  cobs,  the  reddish  scales  from 
the  tip  of  the  grain  are  not  all  removed  by  cleaning  machin- 


CORN   VARIETIES  117 

ery,  and  that  those  remaining  make  discolorations  in  the 
meal,  which  are  undesirable. 

The  color  of  the  grain  does  not  affect  the  composition, 
in  spite  of  the  preference  of  some  feeders  for  yellow  corn  as 
stock-food.  Color  probably  has  no  relation  to  yield; 
yet  a  summary  made  by  the  Mississippi  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, relative  to  490  varieties  tested  at  7  experiment  sta- 
tions, showed  that  white  varieties  averaged  2.5  bushels 
more  per  acre  than  the  yellow  varieties. 

Regarding  the  best  degree  of  hardness  or  softness  of  the 
grain,  there  is  a  wide  difference  of  opinion.  Soft  grains  are 
more  readily  eaten  by  horses,  but  are  subject  to  greater 
injury  from  weevils.  Hard  grains,  while  more  resistant  to 
weevils,  are  not  weevil-proof.  There  is  a  tendency  for 
hard  grains  to  be  of  a  shorter,  more  rounded  form  than 
soft  grains.  Soft  grains  of  the  long  shoe-peg  type  have 
an  undesirable  amount  of  roughness  on  the  top  of  the 
grain. 

106.  Shapes  of  grains.  —  Sturtevant  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr., 
Office  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  57)  has  divided  varieties  of 
dent  corn  into  three  classes,  according  to  the  width  of 
the  grain  compared  with  its  length.  In  his  first  class,  A, 
having  grains  broader  than  long,  there  is  not  mentioned 
a  single  variety  that  has  been  productive  in  the  South. 

In  his  second  class,  B,  having  grains  as  broad  as  long,  the 
only  two  varieties  that  have  generally  proved  in  the 
South  even  near  the  first  rank  in  productiveness  are  Cocke 
Prolific  and  Blount  Prolific. 

His  third  class,  C,  having  grains  longer  than  broad,  in- 
cludes three  times  as  many  varieties  as  are  listed  in  classes 
A  and  B  combined.  In  this  long-grained  group,  we  find 


118  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

the  names  of  a  number  of  varieties  that  have  ranked 
high  in  tests  at  Southern  Experiment  Stations. 

Yet  it  must  be  added  that  in  tests  made  in  the  South 
since  1899,  the  year  of  the  publication  of  Dr.  Sturtevant's 
descriptions,  the  most  productive  kinds  have  included  a 
number  of  varieties  not  mentioned  in  his  list.  Many  of 
these  new,  so-called  varieties  probably  represent  merely 
new  names  for  old  kinds ;  others  are  the  result  of  such  an 
amount  of  selection  and  improvement  as  to  deserve  their 
new  and  separate  names.  Unfortunately,  in  the  renaming 
of  varieties  of  either  cotton  or  corn,  there  has  too  often 
been  a  failure  to  regard  the  rights  of  the  originators  and  of 
the  public,  and  an  unjustifiable  duplication  of  names  for 
the  same  variety. 

More  than  1000  names  of  varieties  have  been  listed. 
Many  of  these  are  merely  names  for  the  same  variety ;  yet 
there  are  enough  possible  combinations  of  qualities  to 
justify  the  naming  of  several  hundred  varieties,  each  differ- 
ing from  every  other  in  at  least  one  easily  recognizable 
character. 

107.  Yields  of  varieties.  —  An  examination  of  the 
yields  of  corn  made  in  variety  tests  at  the  Southern  Experi- 
ment Stations  shows  that  there  is  no  one  best  variety  of 
corn  for  all  conditions  of  soil  and  climate,  even  within  the 
limits  of  the  cotton-belt.  However,  it  appears  that  in 
the  greater  number  of  experiments,  but  by  no  means  in  all, 
the  most  productive  varieties  belong  to  the  class  of  prolific 
corn;  that  is,  having  a  tendency  to  produce  from  160  to 
more  than  200  ears  for  each  100  plants. 

For  example,  in  four  years'  tests  at  the  Alabama  Experiment 
Station,  the  prolific  varieties  averaged  33.8  bushels  per  acre; 


CORN   VARIETIES 


119 


the  varieties  of  medium  prolificacy  averaged  27.7  bushels;  and 
the  non-prolific  varieties  averaged  only  27  bushels  per  acre. 
If  we  should  exclude  from  the  two  latter  classes  all  the  early 
Northern  varieties,  which  have  proved  decidedly  unproductive 
in  this  climate,  the  yields  of  the  three  classes  would  come  closer 
together,  but  the  average  would  still  favor  the  prolific  kinds. 

In  North  Carolina,  a  prolific  variety,  Cocke,  at  all  distances 
yielded  more  grain  than  one  of  the  best  of  the  one-eared,  large- 
eared  kinds,  Holt  Strawberry.  This  superiority  ranged  from 
9.6  to  14  bushels  when  the  single  plants  stood  30  inches  apart 
or  nearer,  and  between  3  and  9.9  bushels  when  the  distance 
between  plants  was  35  or  40  inches. 

In  the  following  catalogue  are  brought  together  the  names  of 
the  varieties  which  have  most  frequently  stood  at  or  near  the  head 
of  the  list  in  yield  of  grain  at  the  various  Southern  Experiment 
Stations : l  — 


STATE  OR  STATION 
Alabama  (Auburn) 


Arkansas  (main  and  branch  stations) 


VARIETY 

Sanders 
Mosby 
Marlboro 
Henry  Grady 
Experiment  Station  Yel- 
low 

Cocke  Prolific 
McMackin 
Bradbury 

Johnson  County  White 
White  Wonder 
Boone  County  White 
Southern  Beauty 
Marlboro 
Williams  Prolific 


1  Data  obtained  chiefly  from  correspondence,  and  partly  from"  publica- 
tions of  the  Experiment  Stations. 


120 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


STATE  OR  STATION 


Georgia 


Louisiana 


Mississippi  (Agricultural  College  Sta- 
tion) 


Mississippi  (Delta  Branch  Station) 


Mississippi  (Coast  Region,  McNeill 
Branch  Station) 


North  Carolina  (Piedmont  Section) 


VARIETY 
Marlboro 
Sanders 
Cocke  Prolific 
Boone  County  White 
Mosby 
McMackin 
Bradbury 
Stone 

Mosby 

Hasting  Prolific 

Shaw 

Calhoun  Red  Cob 

Laguna 

Georgia  Gourd  Seed 

Heard 

Mosby 

Cocke 

Marlboro 

Mosby 

Cocke 

Sanders 

Cocke 

Eureka 

Early  Breadfield 

Holt  Strawberry 

Blount 

Mosby 

Biggs  Seven-ear 

Sanders 

Weekly 

Cocke 

Marlboro 


CORN   VARIETIES 


121 


STATE  OR  STATION 

North  Carolina  (eastern  North  Caro- 
lina) 


North  Carolina  (above  2800  feet) 
Oklahoma  (eastern  and  central  parts) 


Oklahoma  (western  part,  with  defi- 
cient rainfall) 

South  Carolina  (Piedmont  Section) 

Tennessee 

Knoxville  (poor  upland) 


Knoxville  (fertile  land) 


Knoxville  (rich  bottoms) 


VARIETY 

Cocke  Prolific 
Biggs  Seven-ear 
Weekly 
Sanders 
Hickory  King 

Flint  varieties 

Mammoth  White 
Boone  County  White 
Hildreth  Yellow  Dent 
Golden  Eagle 

Dwarf  Mexican  June 
Hickory  King 

McGregor 

Hayes 

Marlboro 

Hickory  King 

Learning 

Iowa  Silver  Mine 

Reid  Yellow  Dent 

Webb  Improved  Watson 

Hickory  King 

Huffman 

Boone  County  White 

Albemarle 

Cocke 

Huffman 

Webb  Improved  Watson 

Cocke 

Albemarle 

Hickory  King 

Boone  County  White 


122  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

STATE  OR  STATION  VARIETY 

Texas  (College  Statipn)  MeGaillard  Yellow  Dent 

White  Superior 
Munson 

Virginia  (Mountain  Section)  Boone  County  White 

Learning 
Collier  Excelsior 

Virginia  (Tidewater  Region,  bottom 

land)  Cocke 

Virginia  (poor  uplands)  Hickory  King 

108.  Southern  varieties  by  classes  (Figs.  68  and  69).  — 
Among  the  productive  varieties  mentioned  in  the  preced- 
ing list  and  belonging  to  the  prolific  type  are  the  follow- 
ing:— 

Mosby  Sanders  Blount 

Albemarle  Cocke  Marlboro 

Weekly 

All  the  above  varieties  usually  bear  between  160  and  200 
ears  for  each  hundred  plants.  The  cobs  are  small,  the  ears 
small,  and  the  grains  usually  rather  long  and  slender, 
but  somewhat  shorter  in  Albemarle  and  Blount. 

Among  the  large-eared  varieties  with  red  cobs  are 

Henry  Grady  Tennessee  Red  Cob 

Arnold  St.  Charles  White 

Among  the  large-eared  or  medium-eared  varieties  with  white 
grains  and  white  cobs  are  the  following :  — 

Shaw  McMackin  Boone  County  White 

Renfro  Bradbury 

Among  the  large  or  medium-eared  varieties  with  yellow  grains 
are  the  following  :  — 

Experiment  Station  Yellow,  having  a  short,  flinty  grain,  and 
usually  a  white  cob ;  and  Evans. 


CORN   VARIETIES 


123 


124 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


CORN  VARIETIES  125 

Among  the  early-maturing  varieties,  but  not  extremely  early 
and  better  suited  to  the  South  than  most  early  varieties,  are 
the  following :  — 

Hickory  King  St.  Charles 

Blount  Prolific  Cocke  (some  strains) 

Mexican  June  corn  is  in  a  class  by  itself.  It  is  chiefly 
valuable  because  of  its  strong  root  and  leaf  systems  and  its 
notable  endurance  of  the  heat  and  drought  of  late  summer. 
The  stalk  grows  to  immense  size,  usually  11  to  15  feet. 
The  stem  is  of  large  diameter  and  rich  in  sugar.  The 
strain  of  Mexican  June  most  commonly  grown  east  of 
Texas  has  a  small,  white  ear  with  soft  grains,  loosely  ar- 
ranged on  the  cob.  It  is  not  very  productive  of  grain,  but 
when  the  ears  are  in  the  hard  dough  stage,  the  entire  plant 
makes  a  good  green  food  for  hogs  or  horses.  This  variety  is 
recommended  only  for  late  planting ;  that  is,  in  May  or 
June,  usually  on  land  where  small  grain  has  been  harvested. 

There  are  other  forms  of  Mexican  June  corn,  among 
them  a  dwarf  variety. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 
Races. 

Make  drawings  from  nature  of  the  cross-sections  of  the  grains 
of  as  many  races  as  can  be  found,  especially  of  dent,  flint,  pop,  and 
sweet  corn. 

Main  characteristics  of  varieties. 

Study  and  write  descriptions  of  as  many  as  practicable  of  the 
most  important  Southern  varieties,  recording  especially,  — 

(a)  habit  of  bearing  one,  or  two,  or  more 

(6)  form  of  ear  ; 

(c)  shape  and  size  of  grain  ; 

(d)  size  and  color  of  cob. 


126  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

LITERATURE 

DUGQAR,  J.  F.     Ala.  Expr.  Sta.,  Buls.  Nos.  Ill  and  134. 

WILLIAMS,  C.  B.     N.  C.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  204. 

KILGORE,  J.  B.,  and  others.     N.  C.  Board  Agr.,  Bui.  Vol.  29,  No. 

2,  and  later. 
STURTEVANT,  E.  L.    U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No. 

59. 


CHAPTER  VII 


CORN  — BREEDING   OR  IMPROVEMENT 

CORN  breeding  is  concerned  with  determining  f'*j  what 
qualities  of  grain,  ear,  or  plant  are  hereditary ;  (2)  the 
best  method  of  finding  hereditary  qualities;  ancj  (3)  the 
means  of  improv- 
ing or  modifying 
hereditary  qualities. 

In  other  words, 
the  plant-breeder's 
task  is  to  maintain 
desirable  qualities 
now  in  existence, 
and  to  add  to  them 
or  so  to  combine 
them  as  to  make 
subsequent  crops 
more  productive, 
or  otherwise  bet- 
ter suited  to  the 
farmer's  needs. 

109.  Improve- 
ment of  varieties. 

—  Corn  is  so  easily  cross-pollinated  and  mixed  with 
inferior  kinds  (Fig.  70),  that  few  of  the  so-called  varieties 
are  strictly  pure  or  uniform.  Indeed,  until  within  the 

127 


FIG.  70.  —  SHOWING  THE  IMMEDIATE  EFFECTS 
(IN  THE  CURRENT  CROSS)  OF  CROSSING  A 
WHITE  POP  CORN  (ON  LEFT)  WITH  POLLEN 
FROM  a  YELLOW  DENT  CORN  (ON  RIGHT). 

The  resulting  hybrid  ear  with  both  white  and 
yellow  grains  is  shown  in  the  center. 


128  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 

past  few  years  but  few  attempts  have  been  made  in  the 
South  to  improve  varieties  by  breeding  or  even  to  keep 
pure  the  best  existing  varieties.  Almost  any  local  kind, 
now  found  to  be  productive  and  otherwise  valuable  in  its 
special  locality,  is  worthy  of  being  improved  by  careful 
and  scientific  methods  of  breeding. 

The  first  effort  of  the  breeder  should  be  directed  towards 
increased  yield,  to  secure  which  he  should  select  chiefly 
those  plants  which  carry  the  greatest  weight  of  grain. 
Next  he  should  aim  at  uniformity,  and  at  the  other  quali- 
ties usually  considered  desirable.  Rather  than  to  attempt 
to  create  an  entirely  new  variety  by  crossing  two  existing 
kinds,  he  should  start  with  one  existing  variety  that  is 
nearest  to  his  ideal,  or  that  best  suits  his  local  needs. 

110.  Selection  and  crossing.  —  The  plant-breeder  im- 
proves plants  by  two  means:  (1)  by  selection  and  (2)  by 
crossing.     Selection  is  generally  more  important  for  the 
breeder,  and  this  is  the  only  means  of  improvement  that  the 
average  farmer  can  advantageously  practice.     Crossing  oc- 
casionally serves  a  useful  purpose  in  the  hands  of  a  skilled 
breeder;    but  it   usually  destroys  uniformity  and  must 
always  be  followed  by  years  of  selection  before  its  results 
become  of  practical  value. 

Selection  of  seed  corn  should  be  practiced  by  every 
farmer,  and  it  gives  results  even  in  the  first  crop. 

111.  Qualities     needing    improvement.  —  Among     the 
qualities  for  which  selection  should  be  made  in  developing 
varieties  of  corn  for  the  Southern  States  are  the  folio  wing : — 

(1)  Increased  yield. 

(2)  Production  of  two  ears  per  plant. 

(3)  Improvement  in  the  shape  of  ear  and  kernels. 


CORN  BREEDING  129 

(4)  More  uniformity  among  kernels,  ears,  and  plants. 

(5)  Increased  closeness  and  firmness  of  grains  on  the  cob. 

(6)  Strength,  or  power  of  the  plant  to  stand  up. 

(7)  Lower  position  of  ear  on  the  plant. 

(8)  More  complete  covering  of  the  tip  by  shucks. 

(9)  Tendency  for  the  mature  ear  to  turn  downward. 

(10)  A  decrease  in  the  size  of  the  plant  in  some  varieties. 

112.  Hereditary  qualities.  —  Among  the  stalk  charac- 
ters which  have  been  found  to  be  hereditary  are  the  fol- 
lowing :  — 

Height  of  plant ;  height  of  ear ;  length  of  shank ;  direc- 
tion in  which  the  mature  ear  points;  number  and  width 
of  blades ;  tendency  to  bear  more  than  one  ear ;  tendency 
to  produce  suckers;  and  ability  of  the  mature  plant  to 
stand  erect  instead  of  being  blown  down.  Practically 
all  the  peculiarities  of  ear  and  grain  are  hereditary. 

113.  Height,  of  ear.  —  It  is  desirable  that  the  ear  or 
ears  be  borne  at  a  medium  height  above  the  ground  (Fig. 
35).     It  has   been  found  in  breeding  experiments    (111. 
Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  132)  that  the  height  can  be  raised  or 
lowered  by  selection  with  this  definite  end  in  view.     In  the 
fourth  generation  the  average  position  of  the  ears  was 
twice  as  high  where  selection  had  been  made  for  high  ears 
as  in  the  strain  selected  for  low  ears,  the  difference  in 
height  of  ears  being  about  three  feet. 

Accompanying  the  lower  position  of  the  ears  was  earlier 
maturity,  a  decreased  number  of  internodes  and  leaves, 
a  decrease  in  the  length  of  the  internodes,  and  a  decided 
diminution  in  the  height  of  the  plant. 

114.  Angle  of  the  mature  ear.  —  The    Illinois    Experi- 
ment Station  has  determined  (Bui.  132)  that  the  tendency 


130  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

for  the  mature  ears  to  remain  erect  or  to  bend  downward 
is  an  hereditary  quality,  and  that  this  tendency  can  be 
intensified  by  selection.  The  drooped  ear,  which  is  prefer- 
able because  of  its  increased  protection  against  rain,  was 
found  to  accompany  a  long  shank.  One  strain  had  shanks 
averaging  12  inches  in  length,  the  other  7  inches.  The 
diameter  of  the  shank  did  not,  in  this  case,  determine  the 
direction  in  which  the  mature  ear  pointed. 

115.  Barren  plants.  —  Barrenness,  or  the  tendency  for 
a  considerable  proportion  of  the  plants  to  bear  no  ear, 
is  usually  regarded  as  hereditary. 

Hartley  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Year  Book,  1902,  p.  549) 
found  that  the  removal  of  barren  stalks  from  the  field 
where  seed  was  saved  reduced  the  percentage  of  barren 
stalks  in  the  next  crop  from  8.11  to  3.43.  Since  barren- 
ness is  difficult  to  detect  before  tasseling,  it  is  advisable  to 
remove  the  tassels  from  all  poor  stalks  before  they  shed 
any  pollen,  whether  these  plants  are  entirely  barren  or 
merely  weak  and  poor.  The  remaining  tassels  will  fur- 
nish an  abundance  of  pollen. 

116.  Influence  of  size  of  ears.  —  At  the  Virginia  Ex- 
periment Station  (Bui.  165,  p.  170),  the  crop  ffom  large 
ears  averaged  5  bushels  more  per  acre  than  that  from 
small  ears  of  the  same  strain  of  corn.     Likewise  greater 
yields  were  obtained  from  large  ears  at  the  Ohio  Station ; 
the  percentage  of  germination  was  higher  for  the  grains 
on  the  larger  ears,  and  the  young  plants  from  the  larger 
ears  grew  more  rapidly. 

117.  Selection  in  the  field  better  than  in  the  crib.  — 
Selection  of  seed  ears  can  better  be  made  in  the  field  than 
in  the  crib,  especially  in  the  case  of  two-eared  or  prolific 


CORN  BREEDING  131 

varieties.  Selection  in  the  crib  tends  to  reduce  the  pro* 
portion  of  plants  bearing  two  ears,  and  thus  it  may  even 
be  the  means  of  reducing  the  yield.  This  is  because  in 
the  crib,  the  largest  ears  are  chosen,  and  these  are  most 
frequently  from  plants  that  produced  only  one  ear.  Selec- 
tion in  the  crib  is  of  more  value  when  only  one  ear  per 
plant  is  desired.  But  even  in  this  case,  crib-selection  may 
serve  to  perpetuate  plants  with  ears  borne  too  high  on  the 
stalk  or  having  other  serious  faults. 

118.  Selection    without    an    ear-to-row    test.  —  Those 
who  cannot  take  the  pains  and  time  needed  to  plant  an 
ear-to-row  seed  patch  (see  Par.  120)  will  profit  by  paying 
to  some  one  else  even  a  high  price  for  corn  thus  improved. 
Such  seed  corn  should  be  bought  on  the  ear,  so  that  all  the 
qualities  of  the  ear  may  be  known. 

It  may  be  possible  to  maintain  the  excellence  of  a  variety, 
but  scarcely  to  effect  rapid  improvement,  by  simply  select- 
ing in  the  entire  field  ears  from  the  best  and  most  produc- 
tive plants.  To  do  this,  the  farmer  should  himself  go 
through  his  field  before  harvest  time  and  in  a  bag  or  basket 
gather  as  many  ears  as  will  be  needed  for  seed.  In  making 
these  selections,  harvest  the  ears  from  the  most  produc- 
tive plants,  but  not  from  those  the  productiveness  of  which 
is  due  to  richer  soil,  to  unusual  distance  from  the  next 
plant,  or  to  other  temporary  advantage.  Excellence  due 
to  these  accidental  causes  is  not  transmitted  to  the  next 
generation. 

119.  Accidental   versus   inherited   excellence.  —  Great 
improvement  in  the  yield  of  corn  may  be  effected  through 
the  process  of  selection  with  a  view  to  identifying  and 
propagating  those  individual  plants  that    have    strong 


132 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


hereditary  qualities.  The 
separation  of  such  worthy 
individuals  is  by  no  means 
as  easy  as  it  may  seem, 
for  individual  excellence 
may  be  due  merely  to 
favorable  surroundings,  as 
extra  space  or  heavy  fer- 
tilization, in  which  case 
the  superiority  is  not 
transmitted  to  the  off- 
spring. On  the  other 
hand,  it  may  be  due  to 
inherent  power  in  the 
plant  itself,  independent 
of  environment ;  such 
inherent  excellence  is 
hereditary. 

The  breeder's  first  task, 
then,  is  to  devise  a  system 
by  which  he  can  determine 
which  plants  are  acci- 
dentally productive  and 
which  are  in  themselves 
superior.  In  other  words, 
he  must  find  which  good 
plants  are  able  to  transmit 
their  good  qualities.  This 
is  best  done  by  means  of 
the  "ear-to-row"  system 
of  field  testing. 


COEN  BREEDING  133 

120.  Ear-to-row    system.  —  This    method    consists    in 
planting  in  one  row  only  the  seed  from  a  single  ear  or  from 
part  of  a  single  ear.     At  harvest  time  the  yield  of  each 
row  is  determined  separately.     The  best  rows  indicate 
which  parent  ear  was  best  able  to  transmit  its  good  quali- 
ties (Fig.  71).    By  selecting  for  seed  the  best  plants  on  these 
best  rows,  and  again  planting  each  ear  on  a  separate  row,  im- 
provement is  rapid,  —  provided  the  breeder,  year  after 
year,  aims  at  the  selection  and  perpetuation  of  the  same 
good  qualities. 

Moreover,  since  self-fertilization  year  after  year  causes 
corn  to  deteriorate,  it  is  advisable  to  prevent  this  by  re- 
moving, as  soon  as  they  appear,  the  tassels  from  the  rows 
on  which  seed-ears  are  to  be  selected. 

In  a  breeding-patch  in  which  this  system  is  pursued 
proceed  as  follows  :  — 

121.  Details  of  ear-to-row  system  of  corn  breeding.  — 
Select  about  100  of  the  best  ears  obtainable  from  the  given 
variety.     From    these    discard    all    except   48,    or   other 
larger  number,  of  the  heaviest,  best,  and  most  uniform. 
Secure  very  uniform  land  and  lay  off  as  many  rows  as 
there  are  ears  to  be  planted,  say  48,  noting  that  the  two 
ends  of  all  the  rows  are  of  apparently  uniform  fertility. 

On  each  row,  plant  the  greater  part  of  a  single  ear,  plac- 
ing the  best  ears  near  the  center  of  the  plot  (Fig.  72) .  The 
rows  should  be  of  uniform  width  and  of  such  length  as  to 
contain  at  least  150  hills,  the  hills  being  in  checks  at  a  uni- 
form distance  apart.  If  practicable,  preserve  until  after 
harvest  time  the  unplanted  grains  on  each  ear,  as  the  best 
of  these  remnants  may  be  needed  for  planting  the  next 
year. 


134 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


Around  the  edges  of  this  breeding-plot,  plant  the  best 
ears  not  used  in  the  breeding-plot,  these  "  general-crop 
rows  "  serving  partially  to  exclude  pollen  of  inferior  plants 
and  of  other  varieties.  If  practicable,  let  this  breeding-plot 


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. 

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>./ 

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FIG.  72.  —  DIAGRAM  SHOWING  ARRANGEMENT  OF  Rows  IN  CORN 
BREEDING-PLOT. 

Dotted  lines  represent  detasseled  parts  of  each  row,  from  which  seed 
corn  is  selected  ;  continuous  lines  represent  parts  of  each  row  not  d.etas- 
»eled  ;  the  best  ears  (1,  2,  3,  etc.)  are  planted  near  the  center  of  the  plot. 


be  at  least  a  quarter  or  half  of  a  mile  from  any  other  field 
of  corn,  and  preferably  separated  from  any  other  corn  by 
woodland. 


CORN  BREEDING  135 

If  necessary,  fertilize  each  half  of  each  row  with  uniform 
weighed  amounts  of  fertilizer. 

As  soon  as  the  tassels  show,  and  before  they  have  dis- 
charged any  pollen,  remove  the  tassels  on  one  half  of  every 
odd-numbered  row  (let  us  say  the  north  half)  and  on  the 
other  (or  south)  half  of  every  even-numbered  row  (Fig.  72) . 
Seed  is  to  be  saved  only  from  the  detasseled  plants, 
thereby  insuring  cross-fertilization. 

From  time  to  time  as  the  crop  grows,  make  note  ,of  and 
reject  those  rows  on  which  the  plants  show  undesirable 
qualities,  as  excessive  growth  of  suckers,  tendency  to  fall 
down,  excessive  height  of  ears  above  ground,  and  the  like. 
At  harvest,  weigh  the  husked  ears  of  each  row  separately 
and  on  each  of  the  best  ten  rows  place  a  label  or  tag  on 
a  number  of  ears  from  the  best  plants.  On  this  tag  should 
be  entered  the  peculiar  excellence,  if  any,  of  each  selected 
plant. 

For  planting  the  breeding-patch  of  the  second  year,  save 
the  ears  from  the  best  plants  on  the  8  or  10  best  rows.  Use 
the  remaining  good  ears  from  these  best  rows  to  plant  larger 
fields  next  year.  These  steps  are  usually  all  that  are  neces- 
sary in  the  improvement  of  corn  by  most  farmers. 

The  method  of  conducting  the  ear-to-row  breeding-plot  is  the 
same  year  after  year,  obtaining  seed  each  year  from  the  best 
plants  of  the  8  to  10  best  rows.  All  other  good  ears  from  de- 
tasseled plants  of  the  most  productive  rows  may  be  used  as  seed 
for  a  seed  patch  of  several  acres  or  for  the  general  crop. 

The  limits  of  this  book  preclude  an  explanation  of  systems  of 
numbering  the  ears  and  their  offspring,  for  which  the  reader 
is  referred  to  Illinois  Experiment  Station  Bulletin,  No.  100 ; 
Connecticut  Experiment  Station  Bulletin,  No.  152  ;  and  Bailey's 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  II,  p.  424. 


136  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

The  multiplication-plot.  —  The  ears  from  the  most  productive 
rows  inherit  productiveness  on  the  side  of  the  female  or  pistillate 
parent ;  but  the  pollen  that  fertilized  these  ears  may  have  come 
from  one  of  the  most  inferior  rows.  In  order  to  insure  the  best 
pollen,  careful  plant-breeders  sometimes  take  the  additional  step 
of  planting  each  year  a  special  multiplication-plot,  or  mating 
area  of  corn. 

In  this  they  plant  the  remnants  of  the  best  original  ears  saved 
from  the  planting  of  the  preceding  spring.  These  original 
ears  in  the  intervening  year  have  shown  their  ability  to  transmit 
productiveness  to  their  offspring.  These  remnants  of  ears  are 
pure  ;  that  is,  free  from  admixture  of  pollen  from  inferior  strains. 

Hence,  most  rapid  progress  in  corn  breeding  is  made  by  having 
in  the  second  year  an  isolated  multiplication  or  mating-plot, 
in  which  are  planted  in  alternate  rows  two  or  more  of  the  best 
remnants  of  ears,  as  judged  by  the  yields  of  the  offspring  of  parts 
of  the  same  ears  in  the  ear-to-row  test. 

Half  of  the  rows  in  the  multiplication-plot  should  be  detasseled. 
Thus  self-fertilization  is  avoided  and  the  union  by  cross-fertiliza- 
tion of  two  productive  strains  is  insured. 

When  it  is  feasible  to  plant  such  a  mating-patch,  the  ears 
from  its  detasseled  rows  constitute  the  seed  for  a  seed  patch  of  the 
third  year,  the  product  of  which  will  plant  the  entire  general  crop 
of  the  farm,  or  be  sold  for  seed.  Since  special  equipment  of  venti- 
lated, insect-proof  jars  or  cases  is  needed  in  the  South  to  preserve 
the  remnants  of  the  original  ears  for  one  year,  most  breeders  omit 
the  mating-plot,  planted  with  such  remnants  of  earb. 

122.  Breeding  for  composition.  —  Hopkins  and  Smith, 
at  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station  (Bui.  Nos.  119  and  128), 
have  proved  that  the  composition  of  corn  can  be  varied 
by  selection  of  seed-ears.  They  selected  for  many  years 
in  succession  kernels  rich  in  the  chemical  constituent 
desired,  as  fat,  protein,  or  starch.  After  continuing  this 
work  for  a  number  of  years,  great  variations  were  found  in 
the  resulting  strains.  For  example,  after  ten  years  of 


CORN  BREEDING  137 

breeding,  the  strain  continuously  selected  for  its  high 
percentage  of  oil  contained  7.37  per  cent  of  fat,  or  nearly 
three  times  as  much  as  the  strain  selected  for  a  low  per- 
centage of  oil.  The  increase  in  oil  makes  this  high-oil 
strain  more  valuable  for  the  manufacturers  who  produce 
from  it  corn  oil,  and  also  gives  to  the  grain  a  higher  feeding 
value,  but  a  tendency  to  produce  softer,  less  desirable 
pork. 

In  ten  years,  the  average  percentage  of  protein  in  the  grain 
was  raised  from  10.92  per  cent  at  the  beginning,  to  14.26  at  the 
end  of  the  decade.  The  high-protein  strain  w,as  then  nearly 
twice  as  rich  in  this  constituent  as  was  the  strain  continuously 
selected  for  a  low  percentage  of  protein.  The  high  percentage 
of  protein  gives  to  corn  a  higher  feeding  value,  of  a  kind  specially 
desirable  when  corn  must  be  fed  without  being  combined 
with  other  foods  richer  than  itself  in  protein.  Apparently,  this 
strain  was  less  able  to  resist  drought,  making  a  lower  yield  in  a 
dry  year  than  did  the  low-protein  strain.  It  is  highly  probable 
that  the  high-protein  strain  more  rapidly  exhausts  the  soil. 

In  breeding  for  a  high  percentage  of  protein,  the  breeder  should 
not  be  deceived  if  the  percentage  of  this  constituent  should  run 
abnormally  high  in  a  very  dry  season,  a  result  which  Hopkins  and 
Smith  found  to  be  due  to  the  failure  of  the  grain,  under  these 
conditions,  to  assimilate  its  usual  quantity  of  starch. 

123.  Other  effects  of  breeding  for  composition.  —  The 
strain  continuously  selected  in  Illinois  for  low  protein 
made  larger  ears  and  a  larger  yield  of  grain  per  acre  than 
the  higher  protein  strain;  likewise,  the  strain  poor  in  fat 
generally  yielded  more  grain  per  acre  than  the  strain  rich 
in  fat,  and  had  larger  ears  than  any  other  strain  whatso- 
ever. Its  grains  were  broader,  due  to  the  larger  proportion 
of  starch,  and  consequently  there  was  a  smaller  number 
of  rows  of  kernels  than  on  the  ears  of  other  strains. 


138  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

124.  How  to  select  grains  according  to  composition.  — - 
Those  kernels,  which,  in  cross-section,  show  a  large  pro- 
portion of  germ,  are  rich  in  fat ;  those  with  an  abundance 
of  horny  material  are  rich  in  protein;    while  those  with 
the  greatest  proportionate   development   of  loose   floury 
material  are  richest  in  starch.     It  has  been  found  that  the 
composition  of  the  kernels  of  the  entire  ear  is  about  the 
same  as  that  of  any  row  of  grains  on  the  ear. 

125.  Germination  test.  —  Care  should  be  taken  to  select 
for  planting  only  those  ears  on  which  nearly  every  grain 
will  germinate.     In  a  good  sample,  97  per  cent  of  the 
grains  should  sprout.     A  germination  test  of  the  ears 
planted  is  important,  even  when  a  larger  number  of  grains 
is  planted  in  each  hill  than  will  be  left  to  grow  there.     This 
test  becomes  doubly  important  when  thinning  is  to  be 
avoided  by  planting  in  each  hill  only  the  number  of  grains 
expected  to  grow  and  to  remain. 

Many  ears,  apparently  sound,  afford  but  a  low  percent- 
age of  germination.  Among  the  signs  of  poor  germination 
are  a  dark  area  near  the  tip  of  the  grain,  or  a  shriveled  tip ; 
but  many  grains  that  appear  to  be  sound  fail  to  sprout. 

Some  farmers  have  found  it  profitable  to  test  for  germination 
every  ear  planted.  The  method  used  is  the  following :  — 

The  seed-ears  are  spread  out  on  the  floor  in  order  and  a  number 
attached  to  each  by  means  of  a  small  nail  driven  through  a  small 
pasteboard  label  and  into  the  butt  end  of  the  cob.  Each  ear 
is  given  a  number,  and  from  each  ear  six  or  ten  grains  are  removed, 
these  being  taken  from  different  parts  of  the  ear. 

A  germination-box  is  made  by  taking  any  shallow  box  of  proper 
size,  placing  in  it  one  or  more  inches  of  damp  sand  or  damp 
sawdust  (Fig.  73) .  The  sand  is  covered  with  a  white  cloth,  which  is 
marked  off  with  a  pencil  into  squares  about  two  inches  each  way, 


CORN  BREEDING  139 

each  square  bearing  a  number  corresponding  to  the  number  on  one 
of  the  ears.  Six  or  ten  grains  taken  from  different  parts  of  each 
ear  are  placed  on  the  square  bearing  the  same  number  as  the  ear. 
Another  cloth  (or  cloth  bag  containing  damp  sawdust)  is  laid  over 
the  squares  containing  the  grains  to  be  tested,  and  over  this  second 


FIG.  73. — GERMINATOR  MADE  FROM  A  SOAP  Box,  AND  READY  TO 

RECEIVE   THE    SEED. 

cloth  is  spread  about  an  inch  of  moist  sand  or  damp  sawdust. 
The  box  is  placed  in  a  warm  room,  and  in  seven  to  ten  days 
a  count  is  made  to  determine  which  ears  sprout  properly.  Do  not 
use  for  planting  any  ear  which  bore  a  grain  that  failed  to  sprout. 

126.  Crossing   versus    selection.  —  Crossing   two    dis- 
tinct varieties  results  in  variation  (or  a  lack  of  uniformity) 
in  the  plants;    uniformity  may  not  again  be  completely 
established  even  after  five  or  ten  years  of  subsequent 
selection.     Hence  it  is  usually  better  for  the  farmer  to 
improve  his  corn  by  selections  among  the  individual  plants 
of  a  single  variety  than  to  attempt  to  cross  two  dissimilar 
varieties. 

However,  since  crossing  in  certain  rare  cases  is  advisable, 
and  since  it  often  takes  place  accidentally,  a  few  of  the 
simpler  effects  of  crossing  are  briefly  discussed. 

127.  Definitions    of    degrees    of   relationship    between 
corn  plants.- — Self-pollination  or  in-breeding  consists  in 
placing  the  pollen  of  one  plant  on  the  pistil  (silks)  of  the 


140  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

same  plant.  This  relationship  is  too  close  for  best  yields, 
especially  if  the  process  be  continued  for  several  years. 

Close-breeding  consists  in  crosses  made  among  the  silks 
and  tassels  of  plants  all  of  which  sprang  from  grains  borne 
in  the  next  preceding  generation  on  one  ear.  This  rela- 
tionship is  so  close  as  to  incur  the  danger  of  reducing  the 
yield  of  grain. 

Cross-breeding  consists  in  crosses  made  between  plants 
that  are  not  related.  This  may  be 

(a)  Between  unrelated  plants  of  the  same  variety;    or 

(6)  Between  different  varieties  of  the  same  race,  as 
yellow  and  white  dent  corns;  or 

(c)  Between  different  races,  as  sweet  and  dent  corn. 
As  a  rule,  the  most  desirable  relationship  is  cross-breeding 
between  unrelated  plants  of  the  same  variety. 

128.  Effects  of  in-breeding  and  of  cross-breeding  on 
yield.  —  Experiments  have  shown  that  continued  self- 
fertilization  of  the  corn  plant  reduces  the  yield ;  and  when 
self-fertilization  is  practiced  for  several  successive  genera- 
tions, it  may  dwarf  the  stalk  and  finally  result  in  some 
measure  of  sterility  (Figs.  75,  76).  Halsted  (N.  J.  Expr. 
Sta.,  Bui.  No.  170)  found  that  self-pollination  in  sweet 
corn  tended  to  increase  the  percentage  of  albino  plants; 
that  is,  those  with  white  foliage  —  an  undesirable  quality. 

Cross-breeding,  on  the  other  hand,  invigorates  the  strain, 
and  some  recent  experiments  show  that  it  may  greatly 
increase  the  yield  in  the  first  generation  of  cross-bred 
plants.  But  it  should  be  remembered  that  cross-breeding 
of  dissimilar  types  has  the  serious  disadvantage  of  destroy- 
ing uniformity.  It  should  be  confined  chiefly  to  plants 
of  the  same  variety,  or  to  very  closely  related  varieties. 


CORN  BREEDING 


141 


FIG.  74. —  SHOWING  BAD  EFFECTS  OF  CONTINUOUS  IN-BREEDING. 
Compare  with  Fig.  75. 


FIG.  75.  —  SHOWING  LARGER  YIELD  AND  BETTER  EARS 

FROM  CORN  NOT  IN-BRED. 

Compare  with  Fig.  74. 

129.  Inheritance  of  color.  —  Any  part  of  the  ear  or  grain 
that  develops  when  pollen  is  excluded  is  obviously  merely 
the  outgrowth  of  tissue  from  the  mother  plant.  By  in- 


142  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

closing  the  young  ear-shoot  in  a  paper  bag,  it  is  found 
that  among  the  parts  that  develop  in  the  absence  of 
pollen  are  the  cob  and  the  hull  (or  seed-coats)  of 
the  grain.  These  parts  (cob  and  seed-coats)  cannot  be 
changed  in  the  current  cross  (that  is,  in  the  generation 
in  which  the  cross  is  made)  by  pollen  from  a  plant  having 
a  different  character  in  these  parts  (see  Pars.  90  and  95). 

Now  whenever  grains  of  corn  are  red,  the  red  color  is  located  in 
the  hull.  Proof  of  this  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  meal  from  red 
corn  is  white,  after  the  bran  has  been  carefully  sifted  out.  Hence 
if  the  female  parent  has  red  grains,  the  grains  maturing  soon  after 
a  cross  is  made  will  be  red,  no  matter  whether  the  pollen  used 
be  from  a  plant  with  yellow,  with  white,  or  with  bluish  grains. 

In  the  same  way  if  pollen  from  a  red  variety  be  placed  on  the 
silks  of  a  white  or  yellow  variety,  the  grains  of  the  current  cross 
will  all  be  of  the  same  color  as  that  of  the  silk-bearing  parent. 

Very  different  is  the  way  the  yellow  color  of  the  corn  grain 
is  transmitted.  The  yellow  color  resides,  not  in  the  hull,  but 
deeper  in  the  structure  of  the  grain  ;  that  is,  in  the  endosperm. 
Proof  of  this  is  shown  in  the  fact  that  meal  from  yellow  corn  is 
always  yellow,  even  after  the  most  complete  removal  of  the  bran. 

Those  parts  of  the  kernel  inclosed  inside  of  the  hull,  that  is, 
the  germ  and  the  endosperm  (including  the  aleurone  layer),  may 
be  visibly  influenced  by  the  pollen  used  in  the  current  cross,  that 
is,  by  "double  fertilization";  these  inner  portions  of  the  grain 
may  display  in  a  few  weeks  after  the  cross  is  made  the  color 
derived  from  the  sire  or  pollen-bearing  plant.  Now  the  yellow 
color  is  located  in  the  endosperm.  The  purple  color  is  located  in 
the  thin  aleurone  layer  just  under  the  seed-coats.  Both  the  en- 
dosperm and  its  aleurone  layer  are  subject  to  double  fertilization 
by  pollen,  and  thus  they  are  at  once  influenced  in  color  by  the 
male  parent.  Hence  pollen  from  a  pure  yellow  variety,  falling  on 
silks  of  a  white  kind,  promptly  makes  the  grains  thus  fertilized 
yellow.  Likewise  pollen  from  a  lead-colored  corn,  falling  on  silks 
of  a  white  variety,  promptly  makes  the  hybrid  grains  lead-colored. 


CORN  BREEDING  14  & 

This  is  because  both  the  yellow  and  the  lead  colors,  being  in  the 
endosperm,  which  may  be  influenced  by  the  male  parent,  display 
their  color  through  the  transparent  hull  or  bran  of  the  white 
mother  plant. 

But  in  the  next  generation,  these  hybrid  seeds  produce  grains  of 
various  colors  or  shades. 

130.    Dominance  of  certain  qualities  in  hybrids.  —  Ac- 

'  cording  to  Mendel's  law,  certain  pairs  of  opposite  quali- 
ties are  not  inherited  in  mixtures  or  blends,  but  separately, 
every  individual  descendant  showing  one  or  the  other  of 
these  opposing  qualities.  The  quality  that  shows  in  the 
greater  number  of  the  descendants  is  called  dominant, 
while  the  quality  showing  forth  in  the  smaller  number  of 
descendants  of  the  cross  is  called  recessive. 

Experiments  have  shown,  according  to  East  (Conn.  State  Agr. 
Expr.  Sta.  Kept.  1907-1908,  Part  VII,  p.  41),  that  in  corn  the 
following  characters.are  dominant  over  their  opposites :  — 

Yellow  is  dominant  over  white  color  of  kernels. 
Red  is  dominant  over  white  color  of  kernels. 
Purple  is  dominant  over  white  color  of  kernels. 
Flint  quality  of  grains  is  dominant  over  dent. 
Flint  quality  of  grains  is  dominant  over  sweet. 
Dent  quality  of  grains  is  dominant  over  sweet. 

Certain  dominant  qualities  show  in  the  current  cross ;  among 
these  are  yellow  or  purple  color  of  grains  (when  crossed  on 
white  varieties),  and  flintiness  of  grains,  whether  crossed  on  dent 
or  on  sweet  corn.  As  a  rule,  the  recessive  grains,  or  those  showing 
no  effect  of  the  cross  in  the  second  hybrid  generation,  are  practi- 
cally pure  as  to  that  quality,  and  these  pure  white  or  pure  dent 
grains  of  the  second  hybrid  generation  subsequently  come  "true  to 
seed."  But  the  grains  showing  the  dominant  quality,  yellow 
color  or  flint  structure,  cannot  thus  be  selected  as  p*ure,  because 
many  of  them  have  been  influenced,  though  imperceptibly,  by  the 
recessive  character  (white  color  or  dent  structure).  In  other 


144  SOUTHERN   FIELD   CROPS 

words,  of  the  seed  showing  dominant  qualities  some  are  pure 
dominants  and  some  are  mixed,  though  having  the  same  appear- 
ance  as  the  pure  dominants. 

131.  Practical  results.  —  Practical  application  may  be 
made  of  the  somewhat  technical  statements  in  the  last  few 
paragraphs  in  the  following  way,  and  in  other  operations 
in  plant  breeding :  — 

(1)  After  crossing  pollen  of  a  pure  yellow  variety  on 
silks  of  a  pure  white  variety,  say  in  1910,  practically  all 
of  the  grains  of  the  current  cross  in  1910  may  be  expected 
to  be  yellow  or  yellowish ;  all  the  pure  white  grains  found 
in  the  second  generation  among  the  descendants  of  this 
cross  may  be  considered  as  pure-bred  so  far  as  concerns 
color,  and  these  white  grains  may  be  expected  in  all  future 
years  to  produce  only  white  grains. 

(2)  After  crossing  pollen  of  a  pure  ^  white  variety  on 
silks  of  a  pure  red  variety,  all  the  grains  of  that  current 
cross  will  be  red  (because  the  hull  of  the  grain  is  furnished 
by  the  mother  parent,  uninfluenced  by  the  pollen  used  in 
the  current  cross) ;  when  these  red  grains  are  subsequently 
planted,  the  crop  will  contain  a  majority  of  red  grains, 
most  of  which  will  be  impure,  as  shown  by  their  descend- 
ants, bearing  both  red  and  white  grains. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  white  grains,  found  in  the  second 
generation  in  smaller  number  among  the  red  grains,  are 
pure;  and  when  these  white  kernels  are  planted,  their 
offspring  will  consist  entirely  of  white  kernels. 

132.  Relative  value  of  top  arid  bottom  ears  for  planting. 
—  When  there  is  any  considerable  inequality  in  size  be- 
tween two  ears  growing  on  one  plant,  the  upper  ear  is 
generally  the  larger. 


CORN  BREEDING  145 

Using  plants  of  identical  parentage,  Hartley1  found  that  the 
yield  of  grain  per  plant  grown  from  lower  ears  was,  equally  as  great 
as  the  yield  from  plants  grown  from  upper  ears.  He  found  the 
plants  grown  from  middle  ears  (on  three-eared  plants)  to  average 
0.65  of  a  pound  of  ear  corn  per  plant,  as  compared  with  0.70  of  a 
pound  from  the  offspring  of  both  upper  and  lower  ears  borne  by 
the  same  parent  plants. 

Redding  (Georgia  Experiment  Station,  Bui.  No.  55)  obtained  a 
slightly  larger  yield  of  grain  from  the  offspring  of  bottom  ears 
than  from  those  of  upper  ears.  The  Alabama  Experiment  Station 
(Bui.  No.  134)  obtained  in  1903  with  St.  Charles  White  a  greater 
yield  from  upper  ears,  but  in  1905,  in  a  more  extensive  test  with 
the  Experiment  Station  Yellow  variety,  there  was  practically  no 
difference  in  the  grain  yield  of  plants  tracing  to  upper  and  to 
lower  ears.  At  the  Rhode  Island  Station  (Bui.  116)  Card  found  in 
sweet  corn  a  tendency  for  the  seed  from  upper  ears  to  produce 
a  greater  number  of  ears  per  plant  than  seed  from  lower  ears. 
This  he  assumed  to  be  due  to  the  more  complete  maturity  and 
greater  size  of  the  upper  ears  of  sweet  corn. 

On  the  whole,  available  evidence  is  not  sufficient  to  show 
any  material  difference  between  top  and  bottom  ears  for 
planting;  and  on  theoretical  grounds  we  should  expect  top 
and  bottom  ears,  if  equally  developed  in  size  and  matur- 
ity, to  be  equally  valuable  for  planting. 

133.  Seed  from  different  parts  of  the  ear.  —  It  is  cus- 
tomary in  the  South  to  remove  the  grain  for  about  an 
inch  both  at  the  tip  and  at  the  butt  of  the  ear.  Numerous 
experiments  show  little  or  no  difference  in  yield  of  corn 
produced  by  planting  grain  from  the  tip,  butt,  and  middle 
portions  of  the  ear.  Even  when  the  experiment  extended 
through  a  number  of  successive  generations,  there  were 
no  notable  differences  in  the  yields. 

i  American  Breeders'  Association,  Vol.  II,  p.  124. 

L 


146 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


Hartley  found  that  the  small  kernels,  usually  on  the  tip,  gave 
a  higher  percentage  of  weak  and  unproductive  plants  than  larger 
kernels.  Jeffrey  (Mich.  Exp.  Sta.,  Circ.  3)  found  that  in  most, 
but  not  in  all  varieties,  the  butt  kernels  germinated  more  slowly 
and'  the  tip  kernels  more  promptly  than  those  from  the  middle  of 
the  ear  (Fig.  76). 

The  Illinois  Experiment  Station  has  shown  (Bui.  55,  and  Bui. 
128,  p.  460)  that  the  tip  kernels  contain  a  slightly  lower  percentage 


FIG.  76. — YOUNG  CORN  PLANTS. 

On  left,  from  tip   kernels ;    in   center,  from  middle  grains ;    and  on 
right,  from  butt  kernels. 


of  protein  than  the  middle  or  butt  kernels,  and  that  the  butt- 
kernels  are  slightly  the  richest  in  this  constitusnt.  The  tip 
kernels  contained  a  slightly  larger  proportion  of  starch  than 
the  others.  Kernels  from  the  tip,  middle,  and  butt  ware  prac- 
tically alike  in  percentage  of  oil  and  ash. 

On  the  whole,  it  seems  advisable  to  remove  the  tip 
grains  of  the  seed-ears  :  (1)  so  as  to  secure  seed  of  more 
uniform  size,  an  important  consideration  where  a  constant 
number  of  grains  must  be  dropped  by  the  planter  in  each 


CORN  BREEDING  147 

hill ;  and  (2)  so  as  to  avoid  injured  and  very  small  grains, 
which  would  either  fail  to  germinate  or  else  cause  the 
young  plants  produced  from  them  to  grow  off  slowly. 

134.  Grading  the  seed  grains.  —  When  extreme  care  is 
taken  to  get  all  kernels  of  as  nearly  a  uniform  size  as  pos- 
sible, in  preparation  for  machine  planting,  each  ear,  after 
being  "  nubbed  "  and  "  tipped,"  may   be   shelled   sepa- 
rately into  a  pan,  and  the  resulting  grain  grouped  into 
kernels  of  three  different  sizes  or  shapes.     This  is  more 
conveniently  done  by  shelling  all  nubbed  and  tipped  ears 
together  and  then  separating  the  grains  into  three  sizes  by 
passing  them  through  a  series  of  sieves  with  meshes  of 
different  sizes. 

135.  Effects    of    change    of    climate.  —  Corn    brought 
into  the  South  from  a  cooler  climate  acquires  year  by  year 
in  its  new  home  greater  height  of  stalk  and  later  maturity. 
With  many  highly  improved  varieties  the  grains  apparently 
become  shorter  and  the  number  of  rows  may  be  reduced. 

As  a  rule,  varieties  from  the  corn-belt  are  not  adapted  to 
the  cotton-belt.  They  mature  too  early,  make  a  smaller 
yield  of  grain  and  stover  than  native  varieties,  and  the 
grain  is  often  unmarketable,  being  weevil-eaten  and 
chaffy. 

Among  the  relatively  few  varieties  from  the  corn-belt  which 
have  in  a  few  experiments  shown  fair  yields  of  grain  are  Boone 
County  White  and  St.  Charles  White.  Even  these  afford  a  better 
grade  of  grain  when  the  date  of  planting  is  rather  late. 

In  the  region  just  north  of  the  cotton-belt,  the  Western  varieties 
are  nearer  an  equality  with  the  native  kinds. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  best  seed  corn  is  that  produced  in  nearly 
the  same  latitude  where  it  is  to  be  grown.  Usually  corn  of 
Southern  varieties  produced  south  of  the  Ohio  and  Potomac 


148  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

rivers  succeeds  anywhere  in  the  cotton-belt.  Corn  growers 
just  north  of  the  cotton-belt  are  able  to  use  seed  from  a  still  higher 
latitude,  but  here,  too,  native  improved  varieties  and  locally 
grown  seed  are  usually  more  satisfactory  than  seed  corn  from  a 
widely  different  climate. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

Comparison  of  ears. 

(1)  Select  5  or  10  plants  with  ears  high  above  the  ground  and 
record  the  average  height  above  ground  of  the  node  bearing  the 
upper  ear. 

(2)  Make  the  same  record  for  5  or  10  plants  in  the  same  field 
with  ears  low  on  the  stalk. 

(3)  If  practicable,  compare  the  maturity  and  weights  of  the 
shucked  ears  on  the  two  types  of  plants  just  mentioned. 

Upper  and  lower  ears. 

(4)  Select  ten  plants,  each  bearing  two  well-developed  ears. 
Shuck  and  compare  the  weights  of 

(a)  the  ten  upper  ears  and 

(6)  the  ten  lower  ears. 

(c)  Does  the  upper  or  the  lower  ear  develop  and  mature  first? 

(5)  TIP,  BUTT,  AND  MIDDLE  GRAINS.     Make  germination  tests 
of  100  tip  grains,  100  butt  grains,  and  100  from  the  middle  of 
the '  ear. 

(6)  VARIATION.     Record  for  two  plants  of  the  same  variety  as 
many  points  of  difference  as  you  can  discover. 

What  does  this  suggest  as  to  the  advantages  of  seed  selecting 
and  breeding  ? 

Color  of  grains. 

(7)  Soak  kernels  of  red  and  yellow  corn,  separate  the  coats,  and 
determine  in  what  part  of  the  grain  each  color  is  located. 

Barren  plants. 

(8)  Determine  in  any  field  the  percentage  of  barren  stalks. 


CORN  BREEDING  149 

Silks. 

(9)  Provided  any  corn  in  silking  stage  is  available. 

(a)  With  a  magnifying  glass  examine  the  fresh  silk  sticking 
out  beyond  the  shuck  for  hair-like  branches  and  for 
pollen  grains  that  have  lodged  on  the  silk. 

(6)  Tie  large,  strong  paper  bags  over  several  young  ear- 
shoots  before  any  silks  appear. 

(c)  A  few  days  after  the  silks  appear  under  the  bags,  note 

how  much  longer  they  are  than  silks  which  have  re- 
ceived pollen. 

(d)  While  the  silks  under  one  bag  are  still  fresh,  and  before 

any  pollen  has  reached  them,  cut  all  the  silks  on  one 
side  of  the  ear,  just  inside  the  shuck  ;  apply  corn 
pollen  on  the  remaining  silks.  In  three  weeks  note  the 
number  of  grains  of  corn  developed  on  each  side  of  the 
injured  ear. 

LITERATURE 

EAST,  E.  M.     Conn.  (State)  Expr.  Sta.,  Rpt.  1907-1908,  Part  VII, 

p.  41,  and  Conn.  (State)  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  158. 
SMITH,  L.  H.     IU.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  Nos.  128  and  132. 
WILLIAMS,  C.  G.     Ohio  Expr.  Sta.,  Circ.  No.  71. 
HARTLEY,  C.  P.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmer's  Bui.  No.  229. 
SOULE,  A.  M.,  and  VANATTER,  P.  O.    Va.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No. 

165. 

DAVENPORT,  E.     The  Principles  of  Breeding.     New  York,  1907. 
DAVENPORT,  E.     111.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No  119  and  Circ.  No  101. 
WEBBER,  H.  J.     Plant  Breeding.    Bailey's  Cyclo.  Agr.,  Vol.  II, 

pp.  53-69;    and  Xenia  (double  fertilization),  U.  S.  Dept. 

Agr.,  Div.  Veg.  Phys.  and  Path.,  Bui.  No.  22. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
CORN  — SOILS,  ROTATIONS,  AND  FERTILIZERS 

WHILE  corn  will  grow  on  an  extremely  wide  range  of 
soils,  yet  good  yields  can  be  expected  only  on  rich  or  highly 
manured  land.  The  corn  plant,  with  its  abundant  foli- 
age, actively  engaged  in  transpiring  moisture,  needs  large 
supplies  of  water.  Therefore,  the  best  soil  for  corn  is  one 
which  can  furnish  a  large  and  regular  supply  of  water  during 
periods  of  dry  weather.  Such  a  soil  is  usually  a  deep, 
rather  rich  loam,  well  supplied  with  vegetable  matter.  As 
a  rule,  bottom  lands  afford  larger  yields  of  corn  than  up- 
lands. 

136.  Bottom  lands  and  uplands  for  maize.  —  Bottom 
lands  on  which  corn  makes  its  best  yields  should  be  well 
drained,  since  the  corn  roots  need  a  constant  supply  of 
oxygen  from  the  air,  and  air  cannot  penetrate  saturated 
soil.  Neither  can  the  roots  range  to  sufficient  depth  when 
the  line  of  saturation  is  near  the  surface.  The  more  poorly 
the  land  is  drained,  the  later  must  the  corn  be  planted  and 
the  greater  the  risk  of  failure,  should  the  subsequent  season 
be  unfavorable.  Uplands  can  be  fitted  for  a  maximum 
development  of  corn  by  gradually  increasing  the  depth  of 
plowing  and  by  constantly  adding  vegetable  matter,  by 
judicious  rotation  of  crops,  or  by  the  application  of  barn- 
yard manure. 

150 


COEN   SOILS  151 

137.  Poor  and  acid  soils.  —  It  is  doubtful  whether  land 
so  poor  as  to  produce  without  fertilizers  only  10  bushels  of 
corn  per  acre  is  in  condition  to  produce  a  profitable  crop 
of  corn,  even  when  fertilized.     It  will  usually  be  more 
profitable  in  such  cases  to  grow  first  a  crop  of  cowpeas  or  of 
some  other  soil-improving  plant  before  planting  the  land 
in  corn. 

Corn  makes  a  fair  yield  even  on  land  that  is  slightly 
acid ;  but  on  such  soils,  the  yield  is  usually  improved  by  an 
application  of  about  half  a  ton  of  slacked  lime  per  acre. 
Corn  is  more  intolerant  of  dryness  in  the  soil  than  of  any 
other  condition.  A  dry  or  thirsty  soil  may  cause  the 
leaves  to  "  fire  "  and  the  plant  to  be  undersized,  with  only 
one  ear  or  nubbin  per  plant.  Moreover,  on  thirsty  land, 
the  distance  between  plants  must  be  wide,  resulting  in  a 
small  yield  per  acre. 

138.  Other   corn   soils.  —  In  selecting  land  for   corn, 
deep  sand  beds  should  be  avoided,  as  being  too  poor  and 
dry.     The  stiffest  clays  are  also  not  desirable,  since  they 
are  often  too  compact  for  sufficient  penetration  by  the 
roots  and  for  thorough  preparation,  cultivation,  and  drain- 
age.    Corn  is  a  favorite  crop  on  new  ground  or  land  from 
which  the  timber  has  just  been  cleared. 

ROTATION 

139.  The  place  of  corn  in  a  rotation.  —  On  cotton  farms 
there  is  too  frequently  no  effort  to  practice  rotation  or  sys- 
tematic change  of  crop  from  field  to  field.     Especially  is 
there  a  failure  to  alternate  any  other  crop  with  corn,  for  the 
reason  that  in  the  sandy  and  hilly  country  corn  is  generally 
planted  on  the  narrow  bottoms,  which  constitute  the  best 


152  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

corn  land  of  these  regions.  In  these  cases  (on  the  richer 
bottoms) ,  so  long  as  the  yield  is  satisfactory,  and  no  undue 
amount  of  disease  appears,  it  is  probably  better  to  violate 
the  usual  rules  of  rotation  and  to  grow  corn  continuously 
than  to  change  it  to  the  shallow,  dry  soils  of  the  hills. 
However,  tracts  that  must  for  this  reason  be  cropped  an- 
nually with  corn  should  be  carefully  supplied  with  vege- 
table matter  by  one  of  the  following  methods  :  (1)  Either 
by  sowing  cowpeas  thickly  each  summer  among  the  grow- 
ing corn  plants,  or  else  (2)  by  growing  each,  winter  a  crop 
of  crimson  clover,  bur  clover,  hairy  vetch,  or  other  winter- 
growing  legumes,  to  be  plowed  under  in  April  or  May  as 
fertilizer  for  the  corn  crop  of  the  same  year. 

140.  A  three-year  rotation.  —  When  possible,  corn 
should  enter  into  the  regular  farm  rotation.  In  the  rota- 
tions best  suited  to  the  average  cotton  plantation  corn 
usually  follows  cotton,  and  is  followed  by  fall-sown  oats 
or  by  wheat.  This  position  is  given  to  corn,  not  for  its  own 
advantage,  but  because  corn  can  easily  be  removed  in  time 
for  the  fall  sowing  of  the  small  grains,  while  cotton  is  not 
generally  removed  at  so  early  a  date. 

Incidentally,  corn  grown  after  cotton  gets  the  advan- 
tage of  the  clean  and  late  cultivation  given  the  latter,  and 
this  starts  the  young  corn  plants  promptly  into  growth. 
Corn,  following  cotton  on  a  field  comparatively  free  from 
the  seeds  of  weeds  and  grasses,  can  be  produced  with  less 
labor  than  corn  after  corn.  A  good  three-year  rotation 
is  the  following :  — 

First  year :   cotton ; 

Second  year:   corn,  with  cowpeas  between  the  rows; 

Third  year:  oats  or  wheat,  followed  by  cowpeas. 


CORN  FERTILIZERS  153 

This  places  corn  on  one  third  of  the  cultivated  area 
each  year.  When  this  rotation  is  repeated  through  the 
fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  years,  it  is  plain  that  cowpeas  or 
cowpea  stubble,  following  the  small  grains,  is  plowed  under 
just  a  full  year  before  corn  occupies  the  land. 

141.  A  four-year  rotation.  —  The  above   scheme  may 
readily  be  changed  into  a  four-year  rotation  by  growing 
two  successive  crops  of  cotton,  the  first  of  which  may  well 
be  followed  by  a  catch  crop  of  crimson  clover,  plowed  under 
about  April  1,  as  fertilizer.     This  places  corn  on.one  fourth 
of  the  cultivated  land  and  on  fields  where  cowpeas  were 
plowed  under  two  years  before  and  where,  perhaps,  crimson 
clover  was  plowed  under  one  year  before  the  corn  was 
planted. 

FERTILIZERS 

142.  Need  for  a  fertilizer  rich  in  nitrogen.  —  Corn  must 
make  a  rapid  development  of  stalk,  leaf,  and  ear,  and  for 
this  purpose  there  must  be  present  in  soil  or  fertilizer  a 
large  amount  of  plant-food.     The  rapid  growth  seems  to 
make  especially  necessary  large  supplies  of  nitrogen.     Those 
soils  richest  in  nitrogen  almost  invariably  produce  the 
largest  yields  of  corn. 

In  unpublished  experiments  made  on  a  wide  variety  of  poor 
soils  in  Alabama,  nitrogenous  fertilizers  have  increased  the  crop  to 
a  much  greater  extent  than  any  other  kinds.  In  these  tests, 
potash  was  usually  of  far  less  value  than  when  applied  to  the 
cotton  plant.  Acid  phosphate  was  intermediate  in  value  be- 
tween the  nitrogenous  and  phosphatic  fertilizers.  However, 
the  results  of  fertilizer  experiments  vary  greatly  according  to  the 
nature  and  previous  history  of  the  soil. 


154  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

143.  Leguminous  plants  an  economical   source   of  ni- 
trogen.— Recognizing  the  great  need  for  nitrogen,  the  wise 
farmer  will  provide  it  in  the  most  economical  and  effective 
manner.     This  is  best  effected  by  the  use  of  cowpeas  or 
other  leguminous  crops,  grown  on  the  land,  and  either 
plowed  under  as  fertilizer  or  used  as  fertilizer  after  having 
been  consumed  by  animals.     When  nitrogen  is  supplied 
in  these  bulky  forms,  the  plant-food  is  accompanied  by  a 
large  mass  of  vegetable  matter,  which  has  the  effect  of 
making  the  land  more  retentive  of  moisture  in  periods  of 
drought.     Thus  fertilization  with  nitrogen,  through  rota- 
tion with  leguminous  plants,  supplies  the  two  greatest 
needs  of  the  corn  plant,  namely,  nitrogen  and  moisture. 

144.  Suggestive  fertilizer  formulas.  —  Proper   fertiliza- 
tion is  governed  by  soil,  kind  of  tillage,  previous  treat- 
ment of  the  land,  and  other  considerations.     No  one  fertil- 
izer formula  therefore  fits  all  conditions,  but  the  following 
are  suggested :  — 

(1)  By  the  Georgia  Experiment  Station  (Bui.  74).     For  corn 
on  worn  uplands,  — 

Acid  phosphate,  1000  Ib. 
Cotton-seed  meal,  1218  Ib. 
Muriate  of  potash,  32  Ib. 
Total,  2250  Ib.  (for  several  acres). 

This  fertilizer  analyzes  about  10  per  cent  available  phosphoric 
acid,  5  per  cent  nitrogen,  and  2  per  cent  muriate  of  potash. 

The  author  suggests  the  following  as  often  applicable  for  loam 
and  clay  soils,  — 

(2)  100  to  200  Ib.  acid  phosphate  per  acre  ; 

100  Ib.  nitrate  of  soda,  the  latter  applied  when  the  plants 
are  2  to  4  feet  high,  on  one  side  of  each  row ;  or, 


COltX  FERTILIZERS  155 

(3)  100  to  200  Ib.  acid  phosphate, 
200  Ib.  cotton-seed  meal. 

(4)  For  very  sandy  soils,  — 

100  to  200  Ib.  acid  phosphate, 

100  Ib.   nitrate   of    soda   (or  200  Ib.   cotton-seed  meal), 

50  to  100  Ib.  kainit. 

For  land  that  has  been  enriched  in  nitrogen  by  the  plowing 
under  of  cowpeas  or  similar  growth,  it  will  usually  suffice  to 
fertilize  with  200  Ib.  per  acre  of  acid  phosphate  or  of  an  ordi- 
nary cotton  guano.  But  even  here,  it  will  often  be  profitable  to 
add  50  or  100  Ib.  of  nitrate  of  soda  when  the  plants  are  2  to  4  feet 
high. 

When  corn  is  grown  in  rotation  on  fairly  good  loamy  or  clay 
soil,  it  appears  to  be  better  policy  in  most  cases  to  withhold  potash 
from  the  corn,  which  is  often  unresponsive  to  it,  and  to  apply  if 
necessary  an  additional  amount  to  the  cotton  crop  grown  in  the 
same  rotation,  —  thus  getting  the  benefit  of  its  specific  effect  in 
restraining  cotton  rust  on  soils  subject  to  this  malady. 

145.  Time  to  apply  fertilizers.  — When  ordinary  amounts 
of  commercial  fertilizer,  say  200  to  400  pounds  per  acre, 
have  been  used,  most  experiments  have  shown  at  least  as 
large  yields  from  applying  the  whole  before  planting  as 
from  applying  a  part  before  planting  and  a  part  during  the 
cultivation  of  the  crop.  This  conclusion  is  summed  up  in 
a  quotation  from  Bulletin  No.  74,  Georgia  Experiment 
Station,  by  Redding :  "  The  experiments  conducted  on 
this  station  long  since  proved  that  .  .  .  (inter-cultural 
fertilization)  is  not  profitable  as  a  rule.  On  the  other  hand 
it  is  often  advisable  to  withhold  a  part  of  the  fertilizer 
for  inter-cultural  application,  when  the  total  amount  to  be 
applied  is  large;  for  example,  500  to  1000  pounds  per 


156  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

In  the  Williamson  method  of  corn  culture  (see  Par.  175), 
all  of  the  fertilizer  is  applied  comparatively  late  in  the  life 
of  the  plant. 

Whenever  nitrate  of  soda  is  the  nitrogenous  fertilizer, 
it  should  be  applied  wholly  or  in  part  after  the  plants  have 
begun  growth  and  before  they  shoot,  preparatory  to  tas- 
seling.  It  is  believed  that  nitrate  of  soda  is  more  effective 
if  applied  when  the  plants  are  between  1  and  4  feet  high 
than  if  placed  in  the  soil  at  a  later  stage  of  maturity. 

146.  Methods  of  applying  fertilizers.  —  When  com- 
mercial fertilizer  is  applied  to  corn,  it  is  usually  drilled  in. 
The  Georgia  Experiment  Station  found  that  about  the 
same  results  were  obtained  from  half  a  pound  of  fertilizer 
in  the  drill  as  from  one  pound  sown  broadcast.  The 
method  of  distribution  in  the  drill  before  the  planting  of 
the  seed  is  by  hand  application  or  by  the  use  of  a  fertilizer 
distributor,  or  by  the  use  of  a  combined  fertilizer  dis- 
tributor and  planter,  which  performs  both  operations  at 
one  time. 

When  fertilizer  is  applied  to  corn  after  planting,  it  is  usually 
placed  in  a  furrow  2  to  4  inches  deep  and  a  few  inches  from  the 
line  of  plants.  With  most  fertilizers,  it  is  desirable  that  this 
later  application,  when  made  at  all,  be  at  a  depth  of  2  to  4  inches, 
so  that  this  layer  of  fertilizer  and  the  roots  congregating  around  it 
may  not  be  disturbed  by  subsequent  shallow  cultivation. 

When  nitrate  of  soda  is  applied  after  the  corn  is  1  to  4  feet  high, 
it  is  drilled  6  to  8  inches  from  the  plant,  the  depth  being  of  little 
consequence.  Indeed,  nitrate  of  soda  requires  no  covering  when 
applied  on  damp  soil.  However,  it  is  generally  advisable  for  it 
to  be  covered  slightly  by  the  next  cultivating  furrow,  so  that  if  a 
sudden  heavy  rain  should  occur,  this  fertilizer  would  not  be  so 
completely  washed  away  as  if  it  were  caught  by  rain  while  still 
on  the  surface. 


CORN  FERTILIZERS  157 

147.  Quantity  of  fertilizer.  —  Until  the  recent  agitation 
about  the  Williamson  method  of  corn  culture,  it  was  the 
general  opinion  that  it  was  ordinarily  not  advisable  to 
use  very  large  amounts  of  commercial  fertilizer  for  corn, 
400  pounds  per  acre  being  then  considered  a  rather  heavy 
application  for  this  crop. 

Experience  shows  that  corn  does  not,  as  surely  as  cotton, 
pay  a  large  profit  on  a  large  quantity  of  commercial  fer- 
tilizer. There  is  more  risk  with  the  corn  crop  because  its 
bearing  season,  from  silking  to  hardening  of  the  kernels,  is 
shorter  than  the  fruiting  season  of  cotton;  and  drought 
at  this  critical  time  in  the  life  of  the  corn  plant  is  apt  to 
ruin  the  crop,  regardless  of  the  amount  of  fertilizer  em- 
ployed. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

(1)  Compare   10  corn  plants  grown  on   a  rich  bottom  soil 
with   10  others  of  the  same  variety  grown  on  a  dry  upland, 
recording  :  — 

(a)  average  height  of  plant ; 

(6)  average  height  of  upper  ear  above  ground  ; 

(c)  average  number  of  square  feet  of  ground  occupied  by 

each  plant,   and 

(d)  average  weight  of  shucked  ear  or  ears  per  plant. 

(2)  Apply  a  teaspoonful  of  nitrate  of  soda  to  each  corn  plant 
on  one  row  and  each  week  afterwards  compare  the  size  and 
color  of  plants  on  this  row  with  those  that  received  no  nitrate 
of  soda. 

LITERATURE 

DUGGAR,  J.  F.     (Rotation.)     Ala.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  134. 
DODSON,  W.  R.     (Rotation.)     La.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  111. 
WHITNEY,  MILTON.     (Fertilizers.)     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Soils, 
Bui.  No.  64. 


CHAPTER   IX 
CORN  — THE  TILLAGE  OR  CULTIVATION 

SOUTHERN  lands  are  usually  in  extreme  need  of  vegetable 
matter.  Too  often  the  stalks  of  corn  or  cotton  are  burned 
in  preparation  for  the  next  crop.  Whenever  possible, 


FIG.  77. —  A  STALK-CUTTER. 


the  stalks  and  weeds,  instead  of  being  burned,  should  be 
plowed  under.  To  do  this  properly,  it  is  often  necessary 
to  use  a  stalk-cutter  (Fig.  77),  which  is  usually  drawn 

158 


CORN  TILLAGE  159 

by  two  horses.  At  each  trip  it  cuts  into  bits,  about  a  foot 
long,  the  stalks  on  one  row.  In  the  absence  of  the  stalk- 
cutter,  corn  stalks  are  cut  into  two  or  three  sections  with 
the  hoe,  and  large  cotton  stalks  are  chopped  with  a 
stalk-cutter  or  broken  by  beating  them  with  a  heavy 
stick,  preferably  on  some  frosty  morning  in  winter. 

In  plowing  under  weeds  or  other  litter,  the  work  can  be 
much  better  done  by  dragging  the  loop  of  a  heavy  chain, 
one  end  attached  to  the  beam  and  the  other  end  to  the  outer 
end  of  the  single-tree  on  the  same  side  as  the  moldboard. 
The  loop  of  this  heavy  chain  runs  just  in  front  of  and  above 
the  share  of  the  plow  and  bends  the  weeds  down  so  that 
they  can  be  completely  covered  by  the  inverted  soil. 

148.  Time    of   plowing.  —  The   time    must   vary   with 
conditions.     The  stiff er  the  soil  and  the  larger  the  amount 
of  vegetation  to  be  plowed  under,  the  earlier  should  plow- 
ing be  done.     On  stiff  soil  plowing  may  well  begin  in 
November  and  be  completed  before  Christmas.     While 
land  plowed  at  this  time  will  have  become  compacted  on 
the  surface  by  planting  time,  this  surface  crust  can  easily 
be  lightened  by  the  use  of  a  disk-harrow  just  before  planting. 

There  is  considerable  leaching,  or  waste  of  fertility,  from 
plowed  soils  left  bare  during  the  winter,  especially  from 
sandy  soils.  This  loss  is  greater  the  earlier  in  the  fall  the 
plowing  is  done.  Hence  the  preparation  of  sandy  soil 
may  be  postponed  until  the  stiffer  soils  have  been  prepared, 
but  even  sandy  soils  should  be  prepared  for  corn  before  the 
teams  are  monopolized  in  the  preparation  of  land  for  cotton. 

149.  Ridging  versus  flush  plowing.  —  The  main  systems 
of  preparing  land  for  corn  may  be  classified  as  follows  :  — 

(1)  Ridging,  or  forming  beds  on  which  the  rows  of  corn 


160  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS    . 

are  to  be  planted ;  (2)  plowing  land  on  the  level,  which  is 
called  flush  or  broadcast  plowing ;  (3)  preparing  the  land 
so  that  corn  may  be  planted  in  the  water-furrow  or  de- 
pression between  the  beds. 

Ridging,  or  bedding,  is  confined  to  a  few  regions  where 
the  drainage  is  deficient ;  for  example,  the  prairie  or  stiff, 
waxy  lime  lands  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi.  Even 
here,  while  bedding  is  perhaps  generally  necessary  for  corn 
planted  early  on  poorly  drained  soil,  it  can  often  be  dis- 
pensed with,  or  the  height  of  the  beds  can  be  reduced.  The 
disadvantages  of  planting  on  elevated  ridges  are  great, 
among  them  being  the  following :  — 

(1)  More  surface  is  exposed  to  evaporation  and  the  row 
dries  out  more  rapidly ; 

(2)  The  depth  of  soil  left  in  the  water  furrow  is  insuffi- 
cient to  support  plant  roots,  thus  confining  them  largely 
to  the  limited  area  immediately  under  the  ridge. 

The  one  purpose  and  advantage  of  ridging  is  to  secure 
increased  drainage  and  warmth.  Hence,  even  in  the  re- 
gions where  usually  regarded  as  necessary,  the  ridging  of 
corn  that  is  planted  late  is  usually  undesirable. 

150.  A  modified  ridging  system.  —  A  system  that  has 
not  come  into  general  use  but  that  has  been  recommended 
for  stiff,  poorly  drained  soil,  is  the  following,  which  affords 
drainage  on  one  side  of  each  row,  and  on  the  other  side 
all  the  advantages  of  level  planting. 

Prepare  the  field  by  back-furrowing  so  as  to  make  eight- 
foot  lands,  or  lands  of  double  the  width  desired  for  a  single 
row.  Plant  two  rows  4  feet  apart  on  this  eight-foot  land. 
This  places  each  row  2  feet  from  a  water-furrow  on  one 
side.  The  other  side  of  the  same  row  can  be  tilled  level. 


CORN  TILLAGE  161 

151.  Level     preparation     and     planting.  —  There     are 
numerous  advantages  in  plowing  the  land  level  rather  than 
into  ridges.     As  a  rule,  the  soil  is  thus  more  completely 
turned  and  a  greater  variety  of  improved  implements 
can  be  used,  —  for  example,  the  disk-plow,  the  row  marker, 
and  the  check-rower,  or  two-horse  corn  planter.     More- 
over, except  on  very  wet  soils,  the  yield  of  corn  is  usually 
greater  from  level  planting  than  from  ridging.     This  is 
due  to  the  greater  ability  of  the  level  land  to  retain  mois- 
ture during  periods  of  drought  and  to  the  wider  range  of 
the  roots,  and  to  their  more  uniform  covering  with  moist 
soil.     Level  planting  is  preferable  for  corn  tilled  in  checks 
and  for  many  loamy  soils,  whether  the  crop  be  checked 
or  drilled. 

152.  Planting  in  the  water-furrow.  —  On  sandy  upland 
soils  in  most  parts  of  the  Gulf  States,  it  is  the  custom  of 
many  farmers  to  plant  corn  in  the  water-furrow  formed  by 
first  bedding  the  land,  thus  placing  the  seed  in  a  deep 
depression.     It  is  asserted  for  this  method  that  by  placing 
the  plants  deeper  it  brings  their  roots  into  a  moist  layer 
of  soil  and  increases  resistance  to  drought.     It  also  makes 
tillage  easier,  saving  part  of  the  work  with  the  hoe,  for 
the  reason  that  the  filling  of  the  furrow  by  the  cultivating 
implement  readily  covers  and  smothers  young  grass. 

In  a  comparison  of  this  method  with  that  of  planting 
on  beds  (doubtless  low  beds),  the  Georgia  Station  found 
no  advantage  from  planting  in  a  water-furrow  on  reddish 
clay-loam  —  a  soil  which  is  somewhat  stiffer  than  in  the 
regions  where  planting  in  the  water-furrow  is  most  cus- 
tomary. 

At  the  Alabama  Experiment  Station  (Bui.  No.  Ill),  on 


162  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

permeable  gray  sandy  soil  (Norfolk  sandy  loam),  the 
yield  was  one  year  favorable  and  one  year  unfavorable 
to  this  method  as  compared  with  level  planting. 

Planting  corn  in  water-furrows  is  not  to  be  commended 
for  stiff  soils;  but  for  permeable  sandy  soils,  this  course 
seems  to  be  advisable. 

153.  Preparation   for  planting  in  the  water-furrow.  — 
This  system  is  the  most  popular  one  on  sandy  uplands  and 
other  dry  soils.     When  the  preparation  is  to  be  thorough, 
ridges  are  made  by  back-furrowing  in  such  a  way  as  to 
leave  the  water-furrows  about  5  feet  apart.     The  bed  is  not 
quite  completed,  but  a  narrow  strip  or  balk,  6  to  8  inches 
wide,  where   the  water-furrow  will  be,  is  left  unplowed 
until  the  farmer  is  nearly  ready  to  plant  corn.     Then  with 
a  shovel  plow,  he  throws  out  this  balk  and  plants  the  seed 
in  the  freshly  broken  furrow,  often  by  means  of  a  com- 
bined fertilizer  distributor  and  planter,  which  places  both 
fertilizer  and  seed  at  the  bottom  of  the  newly  made  water- 
furrow  and  5  to  8  inches  below  the  level  of  the  highest  part 
of  the  ridge. 

During  tillage,  the  soil  of  the  ridge  is  worked  toward 
the  plants  in  the  water-furrow,  so  that,  when  the  crop  is 
laid  by,  the  field  is  practically  level. 

"  Listing  "  is  a  special  method  of  planting  in  a  deep 
furrow ;  it  is  common  in  the  dry  regions  of  the  Southwest. 

154.  Depth  of  plowing.  —  Naturally  this  should  vary 
with  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the  depth  of  the  pre- 
vious plowing.     In  general,   it  may  be  said  that  most 
Southern  corn  fields  are  not  plowed  deep  enough.     The 
increase  in  depth  is  best  made  gradually,  plowing  each 
year  one  inch  deeper  than  the  preceding,  until  the  desired 


CORN  TILLAGE  163 

depth  is  attained.  The  earlier  in  the  season  the  land 
is  plowed,  the  greater  is  the  increase  in  depth  that  can 
properly  be  made.  Hence,  fall  plowing  or  early  winter 
plowing  may  be  deeper,  sometimes  an  inch  deeper,  than 
plowing  done  in  February  or  March.  Usually  the  yield  is 
decreased  by  bringing  to  the  surface,  especially  near 
the  time  of  planting,  any  very  large  amount  of  clay  from 
the  subsoil.  But  while  this  may  reduce  the  first  crop, 
the  increased  depth  is  apt  to  increase  the  yields  of  sub- 
sequent crops. 

155.    Subsoiling.  —  A  method   of  suddenly  increasing 
the  depth  of  plowing  consists  in  running  a  special  subsoil 


FIG.  78. — A  SUBSOIL  PLOW, 

plow  in  the  bottom  of  every  furrow  made  by  an  ordinary 
turn-plow.  This  may  double  the  depth  of  soil  stirred. 
As  a  rule,  subsoiling  is  best  done  in  November  or  Decem- 
ber, or  before  the  beginning  of  the  rainy  season  of  winter. 
After  the  winter  rains  begin,  the  subsoil  of  most  fields 
is  usually  too  moist  for  the  advantageous  use  of  a  sub- 
soil plow.  If  subsoiling  is  done  when  the  subsoil  is  too 
wet  (and  this  may  be  the  case  while  the  surface  soil  is 


164  SOUTHEEN  FIELD   CROPS 

abundantly  dry  for  plowing),  more  harm  than  good  will 
result. 

Since  the  subsoil  is  compact,  much  power  is  needed  to  pull 
a  subsoil  plow  (Fig.  78),  making  this  a  rather  expensive 
operation.  While  there  are  many  exceptions,  the  majority 
of  experiments  in  subsoiling  land  subsequent  to  January  1 
have  shown  no  immediate  increase,  or  not  enough  to  pay 
for  the  extra  cost  of  subsoiling.  Subsoiling,  when  needed 


FIG.  79. — A  TURN-PLOW. 

at  all,  should  not  be  done  more  frequently  than  once  in 
two  or  three  years.  It  is  usually  more  practicable  to  in- 
crease the  depth  of  ordinary  plowing  than  to  practice  sub- 
soiling. 

Implements  used  in  preparation  for  corn.  —  Besides  the  stalk 
cutter,  the  implements  for  preparation  are  usually  either  the  turn- 
plow  (Fig.  79),  which  may  be  of  various  sizes  and  patterns,  or  the 
disk-plow  (Fig.  80).  The  latter  is  suited  only  to  level  plowing  but 
does  its  work  more  completely  than  the  turn-plow,  though  appar- 
ently at  greater  expenditure  of  horse  power.  Use  is  sometimes 


CORN   TILLAGE 


165 


FIG.  80.  —  A  DISK-PLOW. 
The  disk  which  turns  the  soil  shows  only  dimly  beyond  the  frame. 


made  of  a  double  moldboard  plow  or  "middle  burster,"  and,  in  the 
semi -arid  Southwest,  of  a  somewhat  similar  "lister."  Doubtless 
some  of  the  labor-saving  implements  of  the  latter  region,  such  as 
"listers"  and  "combined  listers  and  planters"  (Fig.  81)  could  be 
effectively  used  on  sandy  soils  in  the  South.  Various  forms  of 


FIG.  81.  —  COMBINED  LISTER  AND  CORN  PLANTER. 


166  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

harrows  (Fig.  85)  are  used  by  the  best  farmers  to  pulverize  the 
clods  after  plowing. 

Partial  preparation.  —  Two  methods  of  preparation  deserve 
notice  here,  both  involving  the  performing  of  only  a  part  of  the 
work  before  planting.  Much  of  the  corn  in  the  limestone  prairie 
region  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi  is  planted  by  making  a  list, 
or  slight  ridge,  with  two  turn-plow  furrows  thrown  on  the  seed 
dropped  in  the  old  water-furrow.  Then  the  ridge  is  completed  by 
throwing  two  or  more  additional  furrows  of  a  turn-plow  against 
this  "list."  This  method  places  the  seed  deeper  in  the  ground 
than  is  probably  advisable  in  such  stiff  soils  but  gives  opportunity 
for  a  practice  not  yet  in  common  use  in  that  region,  namely,  the 
partial  pulling  down  of  the  ridges  and  the  cultivation  of  the  field 
by  using  the  spike-tooth  harrow  before  the  corn  comes  up. 

Another  system  of  partial  or  deferred  preparation  is  practiced 
to  some  extent  in  the  sandy  or  hilly  region.  A  deep  furrow  is 
opened,  in  which  the  seed  and  fertilizer  are  placed ;  then  a  fur- 
row on  each  side  is  thrown  toward  the  seed,  the  greater  part  of  the 
land  remaining  unbroken  until  cultivation  begins.  The  combined 
breaking  and  cultivation  is  done  gradually  with  a  small,  deep- 
running  plow  or  shovel.  This  is  obviously  a  laborious  method, 
requiring  the  use  of  small,  unsatisfactory  implements.  Its  chief 
excuse  is  the  occasional  occurrence  of  continued  wet  weather  at  a 
time  when  land  for  corn  should  be  prepared. 

156.  Planting.  —  Much  corn  is  still  dropped  by  hand, 
and  in  this  case  it  may  be  covered  by  any  kind  of  a  plow. 
Much  is  planted  by  one-horse  or  single-row  planters 
(Fig.  82),  with  which  fertilizer  distributors  are  often  com- 
bined. The  use  of  check-rowers  (two-row  planters)  is 
restricted  in  the  South  to  a  rather  limited  number  of 
localities  where  the  land  is  comparatively  level.  Planters 
save  labor,  usually  afford  a  more  even  and  prompt 
germination,  and  leave  the  young  plants  in  straighter 
lines,  thus  making  tillage  easier. 


CORN  TILLAGE  167 

157.  Depth  of  planting.  —  Corn  may  be  planted  and 
come  up  well  at  almost  any  depth  between  1  and  4  inches. 
The  general  rule  is  to  plant  it  just  deep  enough  to  insure 
a  continuous  supply  of  moisture.  Hence,  planting  late 
in  the  season  on  a  dry,  loose  seed-bed  may  require  the  seed 
to  be  covered  with  3  or  even  4  inches  of  soil.  In  the 


FIG.  82. — A  ONE-BOW  CORN  PLANTER. 

earlier  part  of  the  season  1^  to  3  inches  may  be  considered 
the  best  depth  for  most  conditions. 

The  depth  of  rooting  is  not  strictly  governed  by  the 
depth  of  planting,  since  the  few  roots  thrown  out  near  the 
sprouting  kernel  are  not  the  ones  from  which  the  plant  draws 
most  of  its  water  and  food  (Fig.  83).  Most  of  the  perma- 
nent roots  originate  at  the  crown,  which  is  usually  about  1 
inch  beloW  the  surface  of  the  soil,  regardless  of  the  depth 
of  planting. 


168 


SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 


158.  Date  of  planting.  —  In  the  southern  part  of  the 
Gulf  States,  east  of  Texas,  corn  planting  becomes  general 
about  the  first  of  March;  and  in  the  central  part  of  the 
Gulf  States  it  is  in  full  progress  about  the  middle  of  March. 


FIG.  83. — DIAGRAM  OP  YOUNG  CORN  PLANTS. 


Showing  that  the  depth  of  the  crown,  where  most  roots  originate,  is 
nearly  the  same  with  shallow,  medium,  and  deep  planting. 

In  the  northern  part  of  the  same  states  most  of  the  planting 
is  done  in  April.  The  corn  planting  season  in  all  states 
of  the  cotton-belt  practically  extends  from  about  the  first 
of  March  to  nearly  the  first  of  July.  Bottom  lands  are 
frequently  not  planted  until  May  or  later,  while  in  the  same 
locality  the  preferred  date  for  planting  the  uplands  may 
be  some  time  in  March.  Plantings  made  in  June,  even 
on  bottom  lands,  are  usually  less  productive  than  those 
made  in  May  or  earlier.  A  part  of  the  corn  is  sometimes 
planted  late,  in  order  to  distribute  the  labor  of  cultivation 
through  a  longer  period. 

Only  the  seasons  can  determine  whether  in  any  given 


CORN  TILLAGE 


169 


year  it  is  better  to  plant  uplands  very  early  or  at  a  medium 
date.  The  general  belief  inclines  to  the  advantage  of 
the  very  early  planting  of  uplands,  or  as  soon  as  danger 
of  killing  frost  -is  past.  However,  success  is  sometimes 
made  by  planting  at  almost  any  date  between  the  last 
killing  frost  and  the  first  of  June. 

Incidental  considerations  sometimes  govern  the  date  of  planting. 
For  example,  on  land  that  is  especially 
liable  to  the  injury  of  young  corn  plants 
by  the  small  budworm  (see  Par.  189),  it  is 
regarded  as  advantageous  either  to  plant 
very  early,  or  still  better,  to  postpone 
planting  until  about  the  first  of  May. 
The  common  idea  in  postponing  plant- 
ing is  that  the  soil  becomes  so  warm  as 
to  discourage  the  insects.  Probably  a 
truer  explanation  is  found  in  the  more 
rapid  growth  of  the  late-planted  corn, 
which  sooner  grows  beyond  the  stage  in 
which  it  is  attacked  by  the  budworm. 

Early  planting  has  a  tendency  to  pro- 
duce a  smaller  stalk  than  late  planting,  a 
desirable  result.  Corn  planted  early  re- 
quires a  greater  number  of  cultivations. 

Late  planting,  while  making  a  very 
tall  stalk,  reduces  the  injury  from  weevil 
by  reason  of  the  late  date  of  maturity. 
Late-planted  corn,  if  harvested  before 

becoming  thoroughly  dry,  requires  more   JTIG>  §4. HAND    CORN 

ventilation  of  the  cribs  than  is  generally  PLANTER,  FOR  Re- 
necessary  with  early-planted  corn.  PLANTING. 

159.  Replanting.  —  This  is  generally  done  by  dropping 
the  seed  by  hand  and  covering  with  a  hoe.  This  involves 
many  unnecessary  motions  and  much  waste  of  time.  An 


170  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

improvement  consists  in  using  the  rotary  or  other  hand 
planter  (Fig.  84),  which,  when  thrust  into  the  soil,  leaves 
several  grains  covered  at  the  proper  depth. 

The  yield  from  hills  that  have  been  replanted  is  often 
unsatisfactory,  probably  because  of  their  being  crowded 
by  the  older  plants  and  partly,  perhaps,  because  of  an  in- 
adequate supply  of  pollen  for  the  few  plants  which  produce 
their  silks  after  most  corn  has  ceased  to  tassel.  Hence  if 
the  stand  of  corn  is  poor,  it  often  pays  better  to  plow  up 
the  remnant  and  plant  again,  rather  than  to  replant  the 
vacant  spaces. 

160.  Harrowing  before  and  after  planting.  —  In  the 
preparation  of  land  for  corn  in  the  South,  the  harrow  is 
not  so  generally  used  as  it  should  be. 

The  disk-harrow  can  be  advantageously  used  to  slice 
large  clods  left  by  the  plow.  Another  use  to  which  it  is 
seldom  put,  but  which  it  serves  admirably,  consists  in 
running  it  over  crusted  land  to  break  the  surface  crust 
so  that  when  plowed,  large  clods  do  not  form.  A  large 
part  of  the  tillage  should  be  given  to  corn  land  before  the 
seed  is  planted,  and  this  is  readily  done  by  employing  some 
form  of  harrow  after  plowing. 

The  best  time  to  use  any  kind  of  harrow  is  within  a  few 
hours  after  plowing,  so  that  there  may  still  be  enough 
moisture  in  the  clods  to  cause  them  to  pulverize  readily. 
Harrowing  not  only  breaks  the  clods,  but  also  makes  the 
land  retain  moisture  better. 

The  spike-tooth  harrow  (Fig.  85)  may  often  be  used 
advantageously  to  pull  down  or  flatten  ridges  or  beds 
which  have  been  thrown  up  higher  than -necessary,  as  is 
the  custom  in  the  prairie  region  of  the  South  and  on  bottom 


CORN   TILLAGE 


171 


lands.  The  use  of  the  harrow  several  weeks  after  plowing, 
and  either  just  before  planting  corn  or  soon  afterwards, 
kills  young  weeds  and  grass  and  thus  reduces  the  subse- 
quent cost  of  tillage.  The  principal  change  needed  in 
the  tillage  of  corn  in  the  South  is  the  more  general  use  of 
the  weeder  or  harrow.  Its  use  should  be  begun  about  the 


FIG.  85.  —  A  SPIKE-TOOTH  HARROW. 


time  of  planting  and  be  continued  as  long  as  possible.  The 
harrow  may  be  used  until  the  corn  plants  are  4  to  6  inches 
high  and  the  weeder  (Fig.  86)  until  they  are  8  to  12  inches 
high.  The  broadcast  tillage  with  these  implements  is 
the  cheapest  method  of  cultivating  young  corn,  since  with 
either  a  harrow  or  a  weeder  10  to  12  acres  of  corn  can  be 
cultivated  in  a  day.  This  economical  broadcast  har- 
rowing permits  delay  in  beginning  cultivation  with  other 
implements. 

It  is  usually  best  to  run  the  harrow  or  weeder  diagonally 


172 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


across  the  rows,  though  the  direction  is  not  always  im- 
portant. 

161.  Usual  tilling  or  cultivating  implements.  —  The 
implements  most  generally  used  in  corn  tillage  in  the  South 
are  such  as  can  be  drawn  by  one  horse  or  mule.  Among 
these  are  the  following:  heel  scrapes,  sweeps,  cultivators 


FIG.  86.  — A  WEEDEB. 

with  many  small  points,  and  one-horse  spring-tooth  culti- 
vators (Fig.  87) .  Too  often  the  cultivating  implement  is  a 
scooter,  shovel  or  other  implement  tilling  or  cultivating  but 
a  narrow  strip  of  ground  and  running  so  deep  as  to  cut 
many  of  the  corn  roots. 

The  general  rule  should  be  to  till  corn  shallow,  that  is, 
to  a  depth  of  1^  to  2^-  inches,  unless  there  are  special 
reasons  for  deeper  tillage.  Sometimes  comparatively  deep 
tillage  may  be  justifiable  while  the  corn  is  less  than  one 
foot  high,  especially  on  land  that  contains  much  clay  and 


CORN  TILLAGE 


173 


that  has  been  baked  or  run  together  by  heavy  rains,  or 
that  was  imperfectly  plowed  in  the  beginning. 

When  "scrapes"  or  similar  implements  are  used,  it  is  custom- 
ary for  the  first  working  to  be  made  with  scrapes  of  the  smaller 


FIG.  87.  —  A  ONE-HORSE,  SPRING-TOOTH  HARROW,  WITH  FENDERS. 

sizes,  usually  10  to  12  inches  in  width,  gradually  increasing  the 
size  up  to  30  inches  or  wider.  The  first  tilling  of  corn  can  be  much 
more  rapidly  done  if  the  cultivating  implement  is  supplied  with 
fenders  (Fig.  87),  which  are  usually  strips  of  metal  attached  to  the 
plow  beam  and  trailing  along  the  ground  between  the  implement 


174  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

and  the  young  plant  to  protect  the  latter  from  being  covered  by 
the  upturned  soil. 

It  is  usually  cheaper  to  kill  young  grass  along  the  line  of  the 
drill  by  smothering  it  with  earth  thrown  on  it  than  by  the  use  of 
the  hoe ;  yet  this  working  of  the  soil  towards  the  plants  should 
not  be  carried  to  such  an  extent  as  to  form  high  ridges  along  the 
line  of  the  row. 

As  a  general  rule,  tillage  implements  with  small  points  answer 
well  for  the  destruction  of  very  young  grass  and  weeds  and  for 
forming  a  surface  mulch.  But,  if  crab  grass  or  other  tough 
vegetation  attains  considerable  size,  it  is  usually  necessary  to 
destroy  it  with  some  form  of  cutting  implement,  such  as  a  scrape 
or  sweep. 

162.  Two-horse    cultivators.  —  These    implements   are 
used  to  a  considerable  extent  by  the  most  progressive 
farmers.     They  are  of  two  general  types:  first,  disk  cul- 
tivators,  and    second,    cultivators    armed    with   shovels, 
scrapes,  or  small  points.     The  former  are  more  apt  to 
leave  the  land  in  high  ridges  and  to   cut  rather  deep. 
When  two-horse  cultivators  constitute  the  main  reliance, 
it  is  often  advisable  to  give  the  last  working  with  some 
form  of  one-horse  cultivator,  after  the  plants  are  too  large 
to  be  straddled  by  the  double  cultivator. 

163.  Use   of   the   turn-plow.  —  In   the   early  years   of 
Southern  agriculture,  the  turn-plow  was  an  ordinary  im- 
plement of  cultivation.     As  methods  of  farming  have  im- 
proved, farmers  have  largely  discarded  the  use  of  the 
turn-plow  as  a  cultivating  implement.     There  are  excep- 
tional cases  when  its  use  is  justifiable,  for   example,  (1) 
where  grass  is  too  large  to  be  uprooted  by  ordinary  tillage 
and  where  it  needs  to  be  thrown  away  from  the  plants,  and 
to  be  killed  by  smothering  with  earth ;   (2)  when  the  land 
is  cold  and  when  budworms  are  injuring  the  young  plants, 


CORN  TILLAGE 


175 


under  which  conditions  the  use  of  the  turn-plow  to  "  bar 
off  "  the  corn  rows,  that  is,  to  throw  the  earth  away  from 
the  row,  is  justifiable.  In  such  cases,  the  soil  should  be 
returned  to  its  original  position  as  soon  as  the  grass  has 
been  killed. 

164.    Checking  corn.  —  Checking  consists  in  planting 
corn  in  such  a  way  that  it  can  be  worked  or  plowed  in  two 


FIG. 


5. —  CHECK-ROW  CORN  PLANTER,  WITH  DOUBLE  DISKS  TO  OPEN 
A  DEEP  FURROW. 


directions.  Most  of  the  corn  in  the  cotton-belt  is  not 
checked,  because  the  land  is  too  rolling  to  be  cultivated  in 
more  than  one  direction.  However,  checking  is  in  common 


176  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

use  on  the  less  rolling  lands,  especially  on  the  northern 
edge  of  the  cotton-belt;  and  its  use  on  level  and  gently 
rolling  land  should  become  more  general  throughout  the 
South. 

The  chief  advantage  of  checking  consists  in  the  saving 
of  hand  labor  or  hoeing.  In  order  to  practice  checking, 
the  land  should  be  nearly  level  or  very  gently  rolling  and 
well  drained,  since  checking  cannot  well  be  practiced  where 
it  is  necessary  to  plant  on  ridges,  as  is  done  on  poorly 
drained  land.  The  yield  of  checked  corn  is  nearly  the 
same  as  that  from  drilling,  provided  the  number  of  plants 
per  acre  be  the  same  in  'each  case. 

Corn  can  be  checked  either  by  using  a  check-row  planter, 
(Fig.  88),  or  by  carefully  marking  off  rows  at  uniform  dis- 
tances and  opening  the  planting  furrows  at  regular  inter- 
vals and  perpendicular  to  the  first  marking.  The  seed  corn 
may  be  carefully  dropped  by  hand  in  the  furrows  where 
they  are  intersected  by  the  cross  marks.  In  using  a  check- 
row corn  planter,  two  rows  are  planted  at  once  at  uniform 
distances.  This  is  done  either  by  means  of  a  wire  at- 
tached to  the  planter  and  stretching  across  the  field,  or  by 
having  a  second  man  to  ride  on  the  machine  and  regulate 
the  distance  for  dropping  the  seed. 

165.  Number  of  kernels  to  plant  in  a  hill.  —  It  is  cus- 
tomary throughout  the  cotton-belt  to  plant  about  three 
grains  in  each  hill,  even  though  only  one  plant  is  to  be 
allowed  to  live.  This  thick  planting  is  chiefly  due  to  the 
fear  of  the  budworms,  which  kill  many  young  plants  when 
3  to  10  inches  high.  It  is  also  partly  due  to  the  use  of  seed 
that  germinates  poorly  and  to  insufficient  preparation  of 
the  land.  Attention  to  these  points  will  often  make  it 


CORN   TILLAGE  111 

practicable  to  plant  only  one  or  two  kernels  in  a  place, 
thus  reducing  the  labor  of  thinning. 

166.  Thinning  corn.  —  Since  an  excessive  number  of 
grains  is  planted,  subsequent  thinning  becomes  necessary. 
This  should  usually  be  postponed  until  after  the  plants  are 
10  to  12  inches  high,  by  which  time  the  young  plants  will 
have  ceased  to  die  from  injuries  inflicted  by  budworms. 

Thinning  is  usually  done  when  the  ground  is  too  wet  for 
other  work,  by  pulling  the  young  plants,  with  the  assistance 
of  a  long  paddle  to  uproot  any  that  may  break.  Some 
soils  are  injured  if  the  thinning  be  done  while  the  land  is 
very  wet.  Thinning  is  also  done  with  a  hoe,  in  which  case 
care  must  be  taken  to  cut  the  young  plant  below  the  crown, 
else  it  will  again  grow  out. 

167.  Number    of    plants    per    hill.  —  Throughout    the 
greater  part  of  the  cotton-belt,  except  in  its  northern  edge 
and  occasionally  on  rich  bottom  lands  elsewhere,  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  leave  but  a  single  corn  plant  in  a  hill,  while  in 
the  North  and  West  it  is  usual  for  from  2  to  4  plants  to 
grow  in  one  hill. 

The  Southern  practice  of  leaving  only  one  plant  in  a  hill  is 
due  to  the  following  conditions  usually  found  in  the  South:  — 

(1)  A  thirsty  soil; 

(2)  Comparatively  shallow  range  of  roots ; 

(3)  The  large  size  of  Southern  corn  plants  and  their  consequent 
greater  need  for  moisture;   and 

(4)  The  fact  that  but  little  corn  is  planted  in  checks. 
Under  ordinary  conditions  and  on  land  producing  not  more 

than  25  bushels  of  corn  per  acre  it  is  doubtless  best  to  leave  only 
one  stalk  in  a  hill.  However,  where  the  land  is  capable  of  produc- 
ing 35  or  more  bushels  per  acre  and  of  being  planted  in  checks, 
it  will  sometimes  be  advisable,  in  checking  corn,  to  leave  two 
plants  in  a  hill. 

N 


178  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

168.  Distances  between  rows  and  between  plants. — - 
With  corn,  the  general  rule  as  to  distance  between  rows 
is  the  following :  the  poorer  the  land,  the  farther  apart 
must  be  the  rows  and  the  individual  plants;  while  the 
richer  the  land,  the  more  closely  may  both  rows  and  plants 
be  crowded  together.  This  rule  is  exactly  the  opposite  of 
that  for  spacing  cotton. 

Varieties  with  small  or  medium-sized  stalks  may  be 
planted  more  thickly  than  those  with  large  stalks.  On 
poor  upland,  where  the  yield  is  expected  to  be  about  25 
bushels  per  acre,  it  is  best  to  allow  not  less  than  15  square 
feet  for  each  plant.  This  is  equivalent  to  rows  5  feet  apart 
and  plants  3  feet,  or  to  rows  6  feet  apart  and  plants  2i 
feet  apart.  On  richer  uplands,  fairly  retentive  of  moisture 
and  where  the  yield  is  ordinarily  from  25  to  40  bushels  per 
acre,  the  Georgia  Experiment  Station  found  advantageous 
distances  to  be  4J  feet  by  32  inches,  which  gives  3630 
plants  per  acre  in  a  perfect  stand.  Other  distances  that 
give  practically  the  same  number  of  plants  per  acre  are  4 
feet  between  rows  and  3  feet  between  plants,  or  checks 
3^  feet  apart  both  ways. 

Experiments  at  the  Georgia  and  Alabama  Stations  indicate 
a  slight  advantage  from  so  dividing  the  space  allotted  to  each 
plant  as  to  give  practically  the  same  distance  between  plants 
as  between  rows,  that  is,  making  the  plants  form  a  square. 
However,  economy  of  cultivation  requires  that  this  slight  increase 
be  sacrificed  in  order  that  the  rows  may  be  made  as  wide  as  practi- 
cable. Wide  rows  and  closer  planting  in  the  drills  save  hoeing. 
For  example,  one  laborer  can  hoe  5  acres  of  corn  planted  in 
5-foot  rows  in  about  the  same  time  that  he  can  hoe  four  acres 
if  the  rows  are  4  feet  wide.  Horse  cultivation  is  also  econo- 
mized by  wider  rows.  Wide  rows  also  permit  the  sowing  and 


COEN  TILLAGE  179 

cultivatio  of  a  row  of  cowpeas  halfway  between  each  pair  of 
corn  row^ 

While  he  spacing  best  for  any  particular  field  must  be 
decided  V  the  farmer's  judgment,  the  following  distances 
are  wider  applicable  in  the  cotton-belt :  (1)  for  poor  land, 
rows  5  f ?t  apart  and  plants  2|  to  3  feet ;  (2)  for  good 
upland,  iws  4  to  5  and  plants  2  feet  apart,  or  checks  3| 
feet  apar  each  way;  (3)  for  good  bottom  land,  rows  4 
feet  apar  and  plants  at  intervals  of  1  to  2  feet.  With 
improveit  nt  in  preparation  and  in  fertilization  and  in 
prize  patoes,  corn  may  be  planted  considerably  closer. 

168a.  laying  by  "  the  corn  crop.  —  "  Laying  by"  is  the 
name  give  to  the  last  cultivation  or  tilling.  Most  farmers 
cease  tilliE;  corn  just  before  the  first  tassels  appear.  Ex- 
periments ndicate  that  a  later  tilling,  if  quite  shallow,  is 
often  prof  able.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  last  cultivation 
must  be  <  >p,  or  even  moderately  deep,  it  should  not  be 
late.  Deo  tillage  doubtless  explains  the  prejudice  against 
late  tillage 

In  givin  the  final  cultivation,  care  should  be  taken  to 
leave  the  irface  as  nearly  level  as  practicable.  In  this 
condition,  here  is  a  larger  and  more  equally  distributed 
supply  of  loisture  for  the  plant  roots  than  would  be  the 
case  if  the  arth  were  heaped  in  ridges  along  the  line  of 
plants.  Along  suitable  implements  for  the  last  cultiva- 
tion of  cor  are  scrapes  and  one-horse  spring-tooth  cul- 
tivators (H  87). 

169.  Plating  other  crops  with  corn.  —  In  the  southern 
parts  of  Aibama  and  Georgia  and  elsewhere,  corn  and 
peanuts  a?  often  grown  together  by  the  following 
method :  — 


180  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 

Two  corn  rows  are  planted  early  at  distances  of  3  or  3J 
feet ;  an  interval  of  6  or  7  feet  is  left,  and  then  two  more 
corn  rows  are  planted.  In  this  interval  is  planted  a  row 
of  peanuts. 

The  Allison  method  of  growing  corn  and  cotton  together  consists 
in  the  planting  of  two  rows  of  corn  and  two  rows  of  cotton, 
the  rows  all  being  narrow,  that  is,  of  the  usual  distance  for  cotton 
rows.  Corn  is1  planted  more  thickly  in  the  drills  than  usual,  the 
rule  being,  in  this  method,  to  grow  on  each  half  acre  occupied  by 
the  corn  rows  as  many  hundred  stalks  as  the  number  of  bushels 
of  corn  that  one  acre  of  this  soil  would  be  expected  to  yield  in 
solid  corn,  planted  as  usual.  This  alternation  of  the  two  crops  is 
advantageous  to  the  corn,  which  receives  additional  light,  and 
probably  more  than  its  share  of  moisture  and  plant-food.  There 
are  corresponding  losses  to  the  cotton  crop.  Moreover,  should  the 
corn  be  blown  down,  the  late  cultivation  of  cotton  would  be  pre- 
vented. 

The  same  criticisms  apply,  but  to  a  less  extent,  to  the  occasional 
practice  of  planting  two  adjacent  rows  of  corn  and  then  either  six, 
eight,  or  ten  rows  of  cotton,  repeating  this  indefinitely. 

"  Crossed  corn  "  is  a  method  that  seems  to  be  localized  in  the 
*waxy  lime  lands  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi.  It  consists  in  the 
planting  in  fields  of  cotton  of  a  row  of  corn  across  or  perpendicu- 
lar to  the  cotton  rows,  at  intervals  of  16  to  30  feet,  leaving  3  to  4 
corn  plants  in  each  hill.  This  usually  insures  a  crop  of  4  to  10 
bushels  of  corn  per  acre,  in  addition  to  the  cotton  crop.  However, 
the  presence  of  the  corn  greatly  reduces  the  yield  of  cotton.  In  a 
test  at  the  Georgia  Station,  "crossed  corn"  in  a  cotton  field 
resulted  in  a  financial  loss,  as  compared  with  cotton  grown 
alone. 

Another  objection  to  "crossed  corn"  is  its  interference  with 
late  cultivation  of  the  cotton,  should  the  corn  be  blown  down. 
The  principal  justification  of  this  practice  lies  in  the  fact  that 
many  careless  renters  fail  to  cultivate  their  corn  properly  when 
planted  alone,  but  are  more  careful  of  the  cultivation  of  cotton, 
and  hence  of  the  corn  grown  in  the  cotton  field. 


CORN  TILLAGE  181 

170.  Sowing  cowpeas  in  corn  fields.  —  It  is  customary 
among  the  best  farmers  throughout  the  cotton-belt  to  sow 
cowpeas   during   the   cultivation   of   corn.     The   objects 
aimed  at  are  :  — 

(1)  Soil  improvement,  or  an  increase  in  the  next  year's 
crop  on  the  same  land ; 

(2)  The  production  of  cowpeas  for  seed  or  for  pasturage ; 
and 

(3)  The  making  of  cowpea  hay,  which  is  rarely  the  main 
object  and  which  usually  requires  that  the  corn  rows  be 
about  6  feet  apart. 

There  is  need  of  investigation  to  determine  whether 
there  are  any  disadvantages  resulting  from  the  planting  of 
cowpeas  between  the  corn  rows.  In  at  least  one  experi- 
ment in  a  very  dry  year,  the  yield  of  corn  was  materially 
reduced  by  the  presence  of  broadcast  cowpeas.  This  in- 
dicates the  possibility  of  cowpeas  making  undue  demands 
for  moisture  in  a  year  of  scant  rainfall.  With  ample  rain- 
fall cowpeas  in  the  corn  apparently  do  not  reduce  the  yield 
of  the  latter.  As  a  rule  cowpeas  should  be  sown  in  the 
corn  field,  using  one  of  the  customary  methods. 

171.  Broadcast  planting  versus  drilling  of  cowpeas  in 
corn.  —  Both  broadcasting  and  drilling  are  extensively 
used,  but  drilling  is  much  more  prevalent.  The  advantages 
of  drilling  are  the  following :  — 

(1)  It  permits  earlier  sowing  of  the  cowpeas; 

(2)  It  permits  later  cultivation  of  the  corn ; 

(3)  It  economizes  seed,  1  to  2  pecks  sufficing  for  an  acre, 
or  less  than  half  the  seed  necessary  for  broadcast  sowing ;  and 

(4)  The  cowpeas  are  more  certain  to  produce  a  crop  of 
seed. 


182 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


FlG.  89. COWPEAS  GROWING  BETWEEN  ROWS  OF  CORN. 

182 


CORN   TILLAGE  183 

The  disadvantages  of  drilling  are  noted  below :  — 

(1)  The    smaller    amount    of   hay   or   pasturage  pro- 
duced and  the  smaller  amount  of  vegetable  matter  and 
nitrogen  left  on  the  soil  for  the  next  year's  crop ; 

(2)  Drilling  cowpeas  between  corn  rows  may  interfere 
with  the  use  of  certain  cultivating  implements. 

The  advantages  of  broadcast  sowing  (Fig.  89)  are  the 
larger  amount  of  hay  or  pasturage  and  the  greater  amount 
of  fertility  left  on  the  soil.  Broadcast  sowing  has  the  follow- 
ing disadvantages :  — 

(1)  Corn  must  be  "  laid  by  "  early,  sometimes  too  early ; 

(2)  The  cowpeas  must  be  sown  rather  late ; 

(3)  A  much  larger  amount  of  seed  is  required,  about  1 
bushel  of  cowpeas  per  acre  being  customary ; 

(4)  The  stand  of  cowpeas  may  be  poor,  due  to  the  en- 
forced shallow  covering  and  to  the  lateness  of  planting. 

A  good  general  rule  is  to  give  preference  to  broadcast 
sowing  when  cowpea  seed  are  cheap  and  abundant,  and  to 
practice  drilling  this  legume  when  a  large  yield  of  seed  is 
desired. 

172.  Method  of  sowing  broadcast  cowpeas  in  corn.  —  In 
broadcast  sowing,  the  work  is  usually  done  by  hand,  or  with 
a  broadcast  seed-sower  slung  over  the  shoulder.  Covering 
is  effected  by  giving  the  usual  last  cultivation  to  the  corn, 
which  sometimes  covers  the  cowpeas  to  an  insufficient 
depth.  It  is  not  customary  to  fertilize  the  cowpeas  grown 
in  corn  fields,  whether  sown  broadcast  or  in  drills.  This 
is  probaby  because  there  is  no  easy  method  of  applying 
fertilizer  in  this  case,  unless  it  be  found  practicable  to  use 
between  the  corn  rows  a  one-horse  grain  drill  with  fertil- 
izer attachment.  However,  fertilizers  are  usually  helpful 


184  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

and  they  can  be  sown  broadcast  by  hand,  though  the  dis- 
tribution is  irregular  and  inconvenient. 

173.  Methods  of  planting  cowpeas  in  drills  between 
corn.  —  The  methods  employed  in  drilling  cowpeas  are 
numerous.  Among  them  are  the  following  :  — 

(1)  Dropping  a  hill  of   cowpeas  between  each  pair  of 
corn  hills,  covering  the  seed  either  with  a  hoe  or  with  the 
earth  thrown  toward  the  corn  in  cultivation.     The  use  of 
a  hand  planter  should  supplant  this  method. 

(2)  Drilling  cowpeas  by  hand  in  one  of  the  siding  fur- 
rows near  the  corn  row,  covering  the  seed  with  soil  thrown 
by  the  next  outer  cultivating  furrow.     The  chief  incon- 
venience of  this  method  is  the  inability  in  later  tillings 
to  run  the  cultivator  close  to  that  side  of  the  corn  row. 

(3)  Drilling  by  hand  or  planter  a  row  of  cowpeas  in  the 
water-furrow  exactly  halfway  between  the  two^  adjacent 
rows  of  corn. 

Of  all  drilling  methods,  the  last  mentioned  is  apparently 
the  most  common  and  practicable.  It  is  usually  done  at 
the  next  to  the  last  or  even  at  the  third  from  the  last  cul- 
tivation. The  subsequent  tillage  of  corn  serves  also  to, 
cultivate  the  cowpeas. 

(4)  A  combination  may  be  made  of  plan  3  with  either 
1  or  2,  or  with  both,  thus  giving  several  rows  of  the  legume 
between  the  two  adjacent  corn  rows. 

By  using  a  combined  planter  and  fertilizer  distributor  for 
sowing  cowpeas,  the  crop  can  be  fertilized  at  the  same  time.  It 
will  probably  be  profitable  in  most  cases  thus  to  fertilize  cowpeas 
in  the  corn  fields  wherever  they  would  profit  by  fertilization  if 
sown  alone;  100  to  200  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  per  acre  will 
usually  be  sufficient. 


CORN   TILLAGE  185 

In  the  third  method  mentioned  above,  the  rows  should  be  at 
least  4|  feet  apart.  The  first  and  second  methods  permit  nar- 
rower corn  rows. 

174.  The  Williamson  method  of  corn  culture. — Recently 
a  system  of  corn  culture  bearing  the  name  of  its  originator, 
Mclver  Williamson,  of  South  Carolina,  has  come  into 
prominence  on  account  of  some  of  the  large  yields  that  have 
been  produced  by  it  or  by  modifications  of  it.  The  dis- 
tinctive feature  of  this  method  consists  in  the  stunting  or 
dwarfing  of  the  young  corn  plant  (1)  by  withholding  a  part 
of  the  usual  cultivation  in  the  early  period  of  the  plant's 
life,  (2)  by  postponing  the  application  of  any  fertilizer  until 
the  plants  are  thoroughly  stunted,  and  (3)  by  the  root 
pruning  of  the  young  plants  by  means  of  deep  cultivation. 

While  the  intentional  stunting  belongs  exclusively  to 
this  method,  the  Williamson  system  of  corn  culture  in- 
cludes many  good  features  that  form  a  part  of  the  practice 
of  the  best  farmers  employing  various  methods.  Among 
the  strong  points  of  this  method,  and  of  other  methods  as 
well,  are  the  following  :  — 

(1)  Deep  and  thorough  preparation ; 

(2)  Frequent  use  in  the  rotation  of  cowpeas  sown  broad- 
cast in  the  corn  field,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  enrich  the 
land; 

(3)  The  use  of  large  amounts  of  fertilizers ; 

(4)  Thick  planting  along  the  line  of  the  row,  which  is 
rendered  especially  practicable  in  the  case  of  the  William- 
son method  by  the  small  size  of  the  plants,  the  abundance 
of  the  fertilizer,  and  the  thoroughness  of  preparation. 

The  following  condensed  directions  are  quoted  from  an  article 
by  the  originator  of  this  method :  — 


186  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

"  Lay  off  the  land  in  rows  six  feet  apart,  and  bed  on  these  furrows 
with  turn-plow  until  only  a  five-inch  balk  is  left  between  these 
beds.  When  ready  to  plant,  break  out  this  balk  with  six-inch 
shovel  or  scooter,  and  follow  deep  in  furrow  with  narrow  plow. 
Ridge  on  this  furrow  with  one  round  of  same  narrow  plow. 
Plant  in  this  ridge  twice  as  thick  as  corn  is  to  be  left,  one  grain  in 
a  hill,  and  cover  shallow.  Plant  as  early  as  your  seasons  and  the 
nature  of  the  land  will  permit. 

"When  your  corn  first  needs  work,  run  on  both  sides  with  har- 
row or  small  plow  (Fig.  90)  ;  when  it  is  about  eight  inches  high,  give 

second  working  by  running 
around  it  on  both  sides,  if 

on   sandy   land,  with  ten- 
FIG.  90.  —  THE  WILLIAMSON  METHOD      inch  g  Qr  gw         get  Qn 

OF  CORN  CULTURE.  .    ,          ,    .„  ,  .„.  ,       , 

point,  and  if  on  stiff  land 

Showing  condition  of  the  ground  after    uge  ghovel       Thin  nQW 
the  first  cultivation.      (After  sketch  by         ,,T  ,, 

Mclver  Williamson.)  Leave     these     Arrows 

open  and  do  not  work  corn 

again  until  it  is  so  stunted  as  to  prevent  its  ever  growing  larger 
than  is  necessary  to  make  what  corn  the  land  is  able  to  produce. 
On  poor  or  cold  land  from  ten  to  twelve  days  may  be  enough, 
while  rich  soil  may  take  twice  as  long.  When  you  think  that  it 
has  stood  long  enough  apply  one  half  of  mixed  fertilizer  in  the 
open  furrows  next  to  corn,  of  every  other  middle,  and  cover  by 
breaking  out  this  middle  with  turn-plow.  And  side  the  corn  at 
once  in  this  middle  with  fifteen-inch  scrape,  pushing  dirt  around 
it,  and  covering  any  grass  that  turn-plow  has  left.  Corn  should 
now  be  about  knee  high. 

"Within  a  week  give  other  middle  same  treatment,  then  go 
back  to  first  middle  as  soon  as  possible,  and  sow  half  of  nitrate  of 
soda  in  scrape  furrows  next  corn,  and  cover  as  fast  as  sown  with 
one  round  of  turn-plow,  shallow.  Then  sow  peas  broadcast 
in  this  middle  at  rate  of  a  bushel  per  acre,  unless  very  scarce, 
when  they  may  be  dropped,  and  cover  by  breaking  out  middle 
shallow. 

"A  few  days  later  treat  the  other  middle  same  way,  which 
lays  by  corn  on  slight  bed  with  dirt  around  the  feed  roots,  before 


CORN  TILLAGE  181 

bunching  for  tassel.      Lay  by  early  .  .  .  (Fig.  91).    No  hoeing 
should  be  necessary. 

"On  sandy  soils  I  would  use  for  a  25-40  bushel  yield,  100 
pounds  acid  phosphate,  100  pounds  cotton-seed  meal  and  200 
pounds  kainit  per  acre,  mixed,  and  75  pounds  nitrate  of  soda  at 
last  plowing,  leaving  corn  16-20  inches  in  drill,  rows  6  feet  apart. 


FIG.  91.  —  CONDITION  OF  SURFACE  AFTER  "LAYING  BY"  CORN  ACCORD- 
ING TO  THE  WILLIAMSON  PLAN. 
(Redrawn  after  Mr.  Williamson's  diagram.) 

For  40-60  bushel  yield,  I  would  double  the  amount  of  mixed 
fertilizer,  and  also  use  125  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda,  leaving  corn 
14-16  inches  in  drill,  rows  6  feet  apart.  Clay  land  is  said  to 
require  more  phosphoric  acid  and  less  potash." 

In  the  majority  of  experiments  published  prior  to  1910, 
and  made  at  the  South  Carolina,  Alabama,  and  Georgia 
Experiment  Stations,  the  yield  of  corn  was  less  under  the 
Williamson  method  than  with  the  best  of  the  methods  with 
which  it  was  compared  and  in  which  equal  amounts  of 
similar  fertilizers  were  employed.  However,  when  various 
modifications  of  the  Williamson  method  have  been  applied 
by  farmers,  frequently  without  notably  stunting  the  corn, 
large  yields  have  often  resulted,  —  as  has  likewise  been 
the  case  when  farmers  have  employed  any  other  system 


188  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 

of  corn  culture  involving  the  use  of  higher  fertilization  than 
usual. 

Apparently  the  best  lessons  impressed  by  the  Williamson 
method  are  (1)  the  special  value  of  nitrate  of  soda  as  a  fertilizer 
for  corn  and  (2)  the  possibility,  under  favorable  conditions,  of 
planting  corn  much  thicker  than  is  the  custom  in  the  cotton- 
belt. 

It  also  possesses  whatever  advantages  belong  to  the  common 
system  of  planting  corn  in  the  water-furrow  on  well-drained  sandy 
land.  As  before  pointed  out,  the  tendency  is  for  most  varieties  of 
Southern  corn  to  grow  a  larger  stalk  than  is  necessary  for  the 
production  of  the  maximum  amount  of  grain.  A  slight  diminu- 
tion is  size  in  doubtless  desirable,  so  as  to  reduce  the  demand  on 
the  soil  for  water  and  to  increase  the  number  of  plants  that  may 
be  grown  advantageously  on  an  acre ;  but  whether  this  decrease  in 
size  of  stalk  should  be  brought  about  gradually  by  selection  or 
suddenly  effected  by  moderate  checking  of  growth  is  yet  to  be 
determined  by  accurate  investigation. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

(1)  If  corn  plants  are   available  for  this  purpose,  study  the 
effects  of  root  pruning  on  four  sets  of  plants,  by  running  a  knife  or 
hatchet  or  axe  three  inches  on  each  side  of  the  row  and  to  depths 
of  2,  3,  4,  and  5  inches  respectively.    This  may  be  repeated  with 
plants  of  different  heights  between  6  inches  and  6  feet. 

(2)  Most  of  the  practice  to  accompany  this  chapter  should 
consist  of  observations  and  note-taking  on  such  experiments  as 
may  be  at  hand,  or  on  methods  in  local  use  by  farmers. 

LITERATURE 

MYRICK,  H.     The  Book  of  Corn.     New  York. 
HUNT.     The  Cereals  in  America,  pp.  218-242.    New  York,  1904. 
DUGGAR,  J.  F.     Ala.   Expr.   Sta.,   Buls.   Nos.   Ill   and   134. 
WILLIAMS,  C.  B.,  and  others.     N.  C.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  204 
REDDING,  R.  J.    Ga.   Expr.   Sta.,  Buls.  Nos.  55,  58,  and  62. 


CHAPTER  X 
CORN  —  HARVESTING 

IN  the  Southern  States  the  usual  methods  of  harvesting 
corn  and  corn  forage  are  the  following :  — 

(1)  Pulling  or  jerking  the  ears,  afterwards  stripping  the 
blades ; 

(2)  Pulling  the  ears,  leaving  the  blades  to  be  grazed  by 
live-stock ; 

(3)  Pulling  the  ears,  and  cutting  the  tops  for  forage ; 

(4)  Cutting  and  shocking  the  stalks  with  ears  and  leaves. 

175.  Pulling  the   ears.  —  The  first   three  methods  of 
harvesting  require  the  pulling  of  the  ears  from  the  standing 
plant,  after  they  are  thoroughly  mature.     It  is  customary 
in  the  cotton-belt  to  pull  the  ears  with  the  greater  part  of 
the  shuck  attached.     Here  corn  is  usually  placed  in  the 
crib  without  being  shucked  or  husked.     However,  in  some 
communities,  the  unshucked  corn  is  thrown  under  a  shel- 
ter adjoining  the  crib,  and  when  other  work  permits,  it 
is  husked  and  thrown  into  the  crib. 

176.  Handling   the    ears.  —  In   the    South,    the   most 
usual  method  is  for  each  laborer  to  pull  two  rows  of  corn 
as  he  advances  across  the  field,  and  to  throw  the  ears  into 
flattish  heaps  or  piles  on  every  sixth  or  eighth  row;   the 
ears  are  picked  up  later  and  thrown  into  a  wagon  driven 
between  two  heap  rows.     This  is  a  laborious  method. 

189 


190 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


CORN  HARVESTING  191 

An  improvement  consists  in  throwing  the  corn  directly 
into  the  wagon  as  it  is  pulled.  This  is  more  readily  done 
if  a  "  throw-board,"  or  side-board,  2  to  3  feet  high,  is  placed 
on  top  of  the  side  of  the  wagon-body  farthest  from  the  men. 
This  necessitates  loading  the  wagon  from  but  one  side 
and  keeps  the  ears  from  being  thrown  beyond  the  wagon 
(Fig.  92). 

The  wagon  should  also  have  a  hind-gate  that  is  readily 
removable  so  as  to  permit  the  use  of  a  grain  shovel  in 
unloading  the  ears. 

When  it  is  advisable  to  husk  the  corn  as  it  is  pulled  from 
the  stalk,  a  husking-pin,  buckled  to  the  hand,  is  helpful. 
The  shucking  of  the  corn  before  storing  it  is  probably 
useful  in  reducing  the  number  of  weevil  introduced  into 
the  crib. 

177.  Stripping  the  blades.  —  In  order  that  the  forage 
or  "  fodder,"  for  which  the  blades  are  sometimes  used, 
may  be  of  good  quality,  the  blades  are  usually  stripped 
while  most  of  the  leaves  are  still  green.  The  effect  is  to 
reduce  the  yield  of  grain.  The  loss,  as  shown  in  .many 
tests,  averaged  nearly  three  bushels  per  acre.  This  reduc- 
tion in  yield  of  corn  is  due  to  the  fact  that  some  of  the 
material  in  the  green  leaf,  if  it  had  been  left  on  the  plant, 
would  have  been  carried  in  the  circulation  of  the  plant  to 
the  ear,  which  is  not  mature  at  the  time  of  "  fodder  pull- 
ing." 

Another  objection  to  the  common  custom  of  pulling  fod- 
der is  the  cost  of  the  labor.  The  usual  yield  of  cured  leaves 
ranges  between  300  and  600  pounds  per  acre,  or  about 
one  fourth  as  many  pounds  of  dry  leaves  as  of  shelled  grain. 
Fodder  pulling  is  slow  and  extremely  disagreeable  work. 


192  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CEOPS 

Usually  it  pays  much  better  to  employ  the  same  labor  in 
curing  hay,  in  which  operation  a  day's  work  will  provide 
several  times  as  much  forage  as  one  day  spent  in  fodder 
pulling.1 

178.  Topping  corn.  —  Occasionally  corn  stalks  are  cut 
just  above  the  ears.     The  yield  of  tops  is  but  little  more 
than  the  yield  of  blades  or  "  fodder  "  would  be,  and  the 
quality  of  tops  is  poorer,  while  the  labor  is  about  the  same. 
Topping  does  not  greatly  reduce  the  yield  of  grain,  if  post- 
poned until  quite  late.     On  the  whole,  it  is  a  very  un- 
profitable operation. 

179.  Cutting   and   shocking   corn.  —  When   performed 
at  the  proper  time,  this  does  not  materially  reduce  the 
yield  of  grain.     The  time  to  cut  corn  is  when  practically 
all  outer  shucks  have  turned  straw-color,  at  which  time 
the  grains  have  hardened.     This  is  usually  about  ten  days 
later  than  the  stage  at  which  "  fodder  "  is  ordinarily  pulled. 
The  advantages  of  this  method  of  harvesting  corn  are  the 
following :    (1)  all  the  forage  is  saved ;    (2)  the  use  of  the 
land  for  the  next  crop,  except  a  small  space  occupied  by 
the  shock,  can  be  had  at  an  earlier  date ;    (3)  it  frees  the 
land  from  corn  stalks  and  hence  puts  it  in  better  condition 
for  seeding  to  small  grain ;  and  (4)  it  permits  the  harvesting 
of  the  corn  crop  by  machinery. 

180.  The  extent  of  the  saving  by  cutting  and  shocking 
corn.  —  It  is  often  stated  that  the  stover  (that   is,  the 
leaves,  shucks,  and   stalks)  are   nearly  equal  in  feeding 
value  to  the  ears  produced  on  the  same  area.     This  is  not 
true  for  ordinary  Southern  corn,  so  large  a  proportion  of 

1  For  a  financial  statement   relative  to  fodder    pulling,   see    Georgia 
Experiment  Station  Bui.  No.  74,  page  278. 


CORN  HARVESTING  193 

which  consists  of  a  coarse  stalk  having  but  little  nutritive 
value.  It  would  probably  be  a  high  estimate  to  say  that 
30  per  cent  of  the  total  feeding  value  of  the  entire  plant 
of  large  Southern  corn  is  found  in  the  stover.  -Yet  corn 
stover  is  a  source  of  forage  well  worth  saving,  especially 
where  hay  is  scarce  or  expensive. 

There  is  usually  about  one  ton  of  stover  for  every  25  or  30 
bushels  of  grain  produced  by  large  Southern  varieties.  If  this 
stover  is  shredded,  it  may  have  a  higher  feeding  value  than 
an  equal  weight  of  cotton-seed  hulls.  In  composition,  corn  stover 
is  superior  to  cotton-seed  hulls,  but  the  former  is  less  convenient 
for  feeding  in  connection  with  cotton-seed  meal. 

In  one  experiment  in  South  Carolina,  the  cost  of  cutting  and 
shocking  corn  was  no  greater  than  the  cost  of  pulling  the  ears  from 
an  equal  area  of  standing  plants.  However,  the  usual  experience 
is  that  the  former  operation  generally  requires  somewhat  more 
labor  than  merely  pulling  the  ears. 

Whether  it  is  advisable  to  cut  and  shock  corn  or  merely  to  pull 
the  ears,  leaving  the  blades  to  be  grazed  by  cattle,  depends  upon 
(1)  the  abundance  and  cheapness  of  hay,  and  (2)  the  cost  of 
shredding,  including  labor,  cost  of  power,  interest  and  depreciation 
on  shredder,  etc. 

Cutting  corn  and  subsequently  shredding  it  will  generally  be 
profitable  where  the  cost  of  shredding  is  less  than  $2.50  per  ton  of 
stover  in  regions  of  cheap  hay ;  or  where  it  is  less  than  $4.00  per 
ton  in  regions  of  scarce  and  high-priced  hay.  To  this  rule 
there  will  obviously  be  many  exceptions. 

When  no  shredder  is  available,  it  is  doubtful  whether  there  is 
any  advantage  in  cutting  and  shocking  corn  as  compared  with 
merely  pulling  the  ears  and  grazing  the  field.  The  basis  for  this 
statement  is  the  fact  that  it  requires  more  labor  to  pull  the  ears 
by  hand  from  the  shocked  corn  than  from  the  standing  plants,  and 
the  further  fact  that  quite  a  large  proportion  of  the  stover  of 
large  Southern  corn,  if  fed  without  shredding,  is  not  eaten  by 
live-stock. 


194 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


181.  Methods   of    cutting   corn. — Corn   may  be   cut 

(1)  by  hand  implements,  as  with  a  hoe  or  corn  knife, 

(2)  by  a  sled  cutter,  or  (3)  by  a  corn  binder  or  harvester. 
The  choice  between  these  is  chiefly  determined  by  the  cost 
of  each  method  and  by  the  acreage  to  be  cut.     Even  when 
the  cost  of  cutting  by  hand  and  by  machinery  is  identical, 
the  harvester  has  the  advantage  of  making  the  owner  less 
dependent  upon  hired  labor,  and  of  enabling  him  to  do 
the  work  promptly  and  with  less  exertion. 

182.  Cutting  corn  by  hand.  —  The  usual  implement  for 
cutting  corn  is  a  heavy  corn  or  cane  knife.     Sometimes 


FIG.  93.  —  SHOCKING  HORSE. 

6  is  a  broom  handle  or  gas  pipe  ;  the  stalks  of  corn  are  leaned  in  the 
four  angles  where  it  passes  through  the  long  board  ;  after  the  shock  is 
tied  the  broom  handle  is  pulled  out  and  the  "  shocking  horse  "  withdrawn. 

a  sharp  hoe  is  used.  To  form  the  shocks,  one  may  either 
use  a  shocking  horse  (Fig.  93),  or  he  may  form  a  support 
for  the  shock  by  tying  together  the  tops  of  plants  on  four 
hills,  which  plants  are  not  cut.  The  row  on  which  shocks 
are  to  be  located  is  usually  every  tenth  or  twelfth  row. 


CORN  HARVESTING  195 

As  each  armful  of  plants  is  cut,  it  is  carefully  placed  on 
the  shock  in  a  nearly  upright  position.  Some  farmers 
prefer  to  cut  first  the  rows  adjoining  the  shock  row,  so 
that  after  placing  the  plants  from  these  rows  on  the 
shock,  a  few  minutes  are  allowed  for  these  to  dry  slightly 
before  the  layers  of  plants  from  rows  farther  out  are 
added  to  the  shock. 

In  the  South  shocks  should  not  be  very  large,  but  should 
usually  contain  between  150  and  200  plants.  One  that 
is  too  large  is  liable  to  fall  and  to  result  in  the  molding 
of  some  of  the  immature  ears  in  the  center  of  the  mass. 
A  very  small  shock,  on  the  other  hand,  exposes  too 
large  a  proportion  of  its  forage  to  injury  from  sun  and 
rain. 

The  shock  (Fig.  94),  when  completed,  should  be  tied 
tightly  with  binder  twine,  about  two  feet  from  the  top. 
The  shock  can  be  drawn  together  by  a  short  rope,  in  one 
end  of  which  is  a  hook.  The  other  end  of  the  rope  is 
passed  through  this  hook  and  by  means  of  a  slip-knot 
the  shock  is  tightened  while  the  string  is  being  tied.  About 
ten  days  later,  after  the  plants  have  settled  together,  the 
tie  should  again  be  tightened  in  the  same  way.  In  making 
shocks,  great  care  must  be  taken  so  to  construct  them  that 
they  will  not  later  fall.  This  is  best  done  by  care  in  placing 
the  plants  against  the  shock,  an  equal  number  on  all  sides, 
and  in  a  nearly  upright  position,  and  by  keeping  the  top 
of  the  shock  from  twisting,  when  pulled  together  by  a 
rope. 

The  corn  should  stand  in  the  shocks  or  in  a  rick  at 
least  one  month  before  it  .will  be  dry  enough  to  be 
shredded. 


196 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CHOPS 


COEN  HARVESTING 


197 


FIG.  95.  —  SLED  CORN  CUTTER,  WITH  AUTOMATIC  KNIFE  GUARDS. 

183.  The  sled  cutter  (Fig.  95) . — This  implement  consists 
essentially  of  a  sled  on  wheels ;  on  one  edge  of  this  sled  or 
low  platform  is  attached  a  long,  sharp  knife,  sloping 
backward  at  an  oblique  angle  to  the  row  of  corn. 
The  sled  is  driven 
near  enough  to 
the  row  for  the 
slanting  knife  to 
cut  the  corn  with 
a  sliding  cut. 

A  man,  standing 
on  the  platform, 
catches  the  cut  corn 
in  his  arms;  when 
he  has  an  armful, 
he  stops  the  team 
and  places  the  corn 
on  the  nearest 
shock.  The  cost  of  FIG.  96. — A  HOME-MADE  SLED  CORN  CUTTER. 


198  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

this  cutter  made  at  home  from  a  long  scythe  blade  may  be  as 
low  as  $10.00  (Fig.  96),  while  the  cutters  on  wheels,  with  every 
facility  for  better  work,  cost  about  twice  as  much. 

The  sled  cutter  is  drawn  by  one  animal  or  by  two,  hitched 
tandem.  If  it  be  equipped  with  a  blade  on  each  side,  so  as  to  cut 
two  rows  at  once,  two  men  catch  and  shock  the  cut  corn.  For 
the  convenient  use  of  such  two-row  cutters,  corn  rows  should  be 
of  a  uniform  width,  suited  to  the  width  of  the  cutter.  This  is 
one  of  the  cheapest  methods  of  cutting  corn. 

184.  The  corn  binder  or  harvester  (Fig.  97).  —  This  ma- 
chine cuts  the  corn  and  binds  it  into  large  bundles.  It  is 
usually  drawn  by  three  horses  or  mules.  The  ordinary 
cost  is  about  $125.  This  limits  its  use  to  those  farmers 
or  groups  of  cooperating  farmers  who  can  use  it  each  year 
to  cut  a  considerable  acreage,  say  30  acres  or  more.  It 
cuts  a  single  row  at  a  time  and  may  cut  6  or  8  acres  in  a 
day.  If  a  charge  is  made  for  the  team,  the  cost  of  cutting 
and  shocking  and  of  twine  is  often  about  equal  to  the  cost 
of  cutting  by  hand  and  shocking.  But  the  machine  per- 
mits prompt  work  and  economizes  human  labor.  Where 
the  height  of  the  corn  is  excessive  or  the  rows  short,  hand 
cutting  is  preferable. 

The  bundles  from  the  machine  must  usually  be  stacked  by  hand. 
Some  binders  have  a  bundle-carrying  attachment,  which  reduces 
the  labor  of  shocking.  In  any  case,  it  is  easier  and  more  satisfac- 
tory to  shock  bundles  than  to  shock  unbound  corn  cut  by  hand. 
The  corn  binder  usually  breaks  off  a  sufficient  number  of  ears  to 
require  that  these  be  picked  up  by  hand. 

A  shocker  is  a  machine  more  complicated  and  costly  than  the 
corn  binder.  It  carries  on  a  platform  all  of  the  unbound  corn 
plants,  until  it  gathers  enough  for  a  shock,  when  the  team  is 
stopped  and  the  driver,  by  means  of  a  hoisting  device  or  frame, 
transfers  the  corn  from  the  machine  to  the  ground,  where  it  forms 


CORN  HARVESTING 


199 


200 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


a  complete  shock.  This  stopping  of  the  machine  greatly  reduces 
the  area  of  corn  harvested.  For  this  reason,  and  because  of  the 
greater  cost  and  complexity  of  the  machinery,  the  shocker  cannot 
yet  be  generally  recommended  to  Southern  farmers.  The  latter 
criticism  applies  also  to  the  recently  invented  machine  for  pulling 
the  ears  of  corn  from  the  standing  plants. 

185.    Shredding  corn.  —  A  shredder  is  a  machine  that 
tears  the  stover  into  small  fragments  and  which,  at  the 


FIG.  98.  —  CORN  HUSKER  AND  SHREDDER  AT  WORK. 

same  time,  removes  the  ear  and  takes  from  it  nearly  all 
of  the  shuck  (Fig.  98).  To  drive  a  shredder  requires  con- 
siderable power. 

The  following  are  among  the  advantages  of  shredding 
stover  as  compared  with  feeding  it  whole :  — 

(1)  The  removal  of  the  ears  from  the  stalks  and  the 
partial  shucking  of  the  ears ; 


COEN  HARVESTING  201 

(2)  The  larger  proportion  of  shredded  stover  that  is 
eaten ; 

(3)  The  greater  economy  in  handling  shredded  stover, 
which  can  either  be  baled  at  once  or  blown  by  the  shredder 
into  the  barn; 

(4)  The  finer  condition  and  greater  value  of  the  manure 
that  is  free  from  long  corn  stalks,  and  the  cleaner  condition 
of  the  field  from  which  corn  stalks  have  been  removed. 

Against  these  advantages  must  be  placed  the  cost  of 
shredding,  including  cost  of  power,  labor,  and  interest, 
depreciation,  and  repairs  on  the  shredder.  These  several 
charges  have  sometimes  been  found  to  range  between 
$1.50  and  S3  per  ton  of  stover. 

186.  Corn  cribs.  —  In  cribs,  or  buildings  intended  for 
the  storage  of  corn,  three  aims  should  be  kept  in  mind : 
(1)  ventilation,  (2)  prevention  of  injury  by  rats  and  mice, 
and  (3)  minimizing  the  injury  from  attacks  of  weevil  and 
other  grain  insects.  In  most  Southern  cribs,  the  only  care 
is  usually  to  provide  ventilation.  This  is  done  by  making 
the  sides  of  slats,  or  narrow  planks  nailed  on  the  inside  of 
the  framing,  in  a  horizontal  position.  Such  a  slatted  con- 
struction is  probably  best  for  the  storage  of  large  amounts 
of  unhusked  corn,  where  there  is  the  chance  that  some  of 
it  may  be  wet  or  immature  when  harvested.  Even  the 
slatted  cribs  can  be  made  rat-proof  by  lining  them  through- 
out, on  sleepers,  studding,  and  joists,  with  strong  wire 
netting,  usually  with  meshes  about  one  fourth  inch  in  size. 
The  additional  expense  is  considerable,  but  in  the  end  this 
expenditure  is  profitable. 

Sometimes  a  small,  detached  crib  is  rendered  rat-proof 
and  mouse-proof  by  placing  it  on  tall  pillars,  the  upper 


202  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

portion  of  each  pillar  being  wrapped  with  new  tin,  or  else 
each  pillar  being  topped  with  an  inverted  tin  pan,  having 
no  rim.  An  objection  to  this  form  of  construction  is  the 
greater  height  to  which  the  corn  must  be  thrown  in  un- 
loading the  wagons. 

187.  Prevention  of  injury  by  weevils  in  cribs.  —  Weevils 
cause  a  greater  loss  than  do  either  defective  ventilation 
or  rats  and  mice.  The  remedy  for  weevils  is  the  vapor  of 
carbon  disulfide  (Par.  194),  which  can  only  be  applied 
in  a  tight  crib.  Yet  the  double  provision  for  ventilation 
and  for  prevention  of  weevil  injury  cannot  well  be  pro- 
vided in  a  single  crib  of  any  of  the  ordinary  kinds. 

Probably  the  need  for  an  extreme  amount  of  ventila- 
tion has  been  overestimated.  For  many  years  the  Ala- 
bama Experiment  Station  has  stored  annually  several 
hundred  bushels  of  unshucked  corn  in  a  tight  crib  made 
of  12-inch  boards,  with  as  small  cracks  between  them  as 
possible.  In  this  crib  it  is  practicable  to  destroy  most  of 
the  weevil  in  unshucked  corn  by  the  use  of  carbon  disul- 
fide. In  using  such  a  tight  crib,  it  would  be  necessary 
to  store  elsewhere,  in  some  slatted  crib,  that  part  of  the 
crop  that  is  not  thoroughly  mature,  or  that  is  put  into 
the  crib  when  very  wet. 

It  would  probably  also  be  advantageous,  when  practicable,  to 
shuck  the  corn  before  storing  it  in  such  a  tight  crib,  for  the 
following  reasons :  (1)  The  crib  would  hold  about  twice  as  many 
bushels  of  shucked  as  of  unshucked  corn ;  (2)  The  weevils  could 
be  killed  with  a  smaller  amount  of  carbon  disulfide. 

In  the  case  of  a  farmer  putting  part  of  his  corn  in  a  slatted  crib 
and  part  in  a  tight  crib,  that  from  the  slatted  crib  should  be  used 
first,  since  the  corn  in  the  tight  crib  could  be  kept  sound  through 
the  next  summer  by  the  occasional  use  of  carbon  disulfide,  while 


CORN  HARVESTING 


203 


the  corn  in  the  slatted  crib  would  be  severely  attacked  by  weevils 
on  the  approach  of  warm  weather,  or  earlier. 

Single  loads  of  corn,  whether  shucked  or  unshucked,  that  can 
be  left  in  the  wagon  for  three  hours  or  longer,  for  example  over 


— v 


JN,  v. 


*W  -.    *%  •«. 


y      f 


m*** 


FIG.  99.  —  A  FIELD  OF  CORN  IN  ALABAMA  THAT  YIELDED  103f  BUSHELS 

PER  ACRE. 

night,  may  be  rendered  weevil-free  by  the  following  plan,  which 
is  recommended  by  Dr.  W.  E.  Hinds :   Make  the  wagon-body 


204  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

tight,  preferably  reenforcing  it  by  folding  a  large  grain  Sheet  ot 
osnaburgs  over  the  bottom,  sides,  and  top.  Place  about  three 
pounds  of  carbon  disulfide  in  shallow  cans  near  the  top  of  a 
large  load  of  unshucked  corn,  or  a  smaller  amount  in  each  load 
of  shucked  corn.  Such  loads  of  fumigated  corn  should  be  placed 
in  separate  and  detached  cribs  to  be  kept  as  the  last  corn  used 
the  next  spring  or  summer. 

Keep  lighted  pipes  and  all  lights  away  from  carbon  disulfide, 
since  the  fumes  are  highly  combustible. 

188.  Yields  of  maize.  —  The  average  corn  crop  of  most 
Southern  States  is  below  20  bushels  per  acre.  Yet  indi- 
vidual farms  in  the  South  sometimes  average  more  than 
50  bushels  per  acre.  There  are  a  number  of  authentic 
records  of  yields  of  more  than  100  bushels  of  corn  per 
acre  made  by  Southern  farmers  on  upland  soil  (Fig.  99). 

Two  of  the  largest  yields  on  record  were  made  in  the 
South.  These  were  254  bushels  and  49  pounds  of  shelled 
corn  (or  "  239  bushels  of  crib-cured  corn  ")  per  acre,  made 
by  Z.  J.  Drake  in  South  Carolina  (Kan.  Board  Agr.,  Dec., 
1905,  p.  208),  and  226f  bushels  per  acre  obtained  by 
J.  F.  Batts  in  North  Carolina  in  1909. 

In  the  first  case  the  manure,  cotton-seed,  and  other 
fertilizers  cost  about  as  much  as  the  value  of  the  corn  at 
the  prices  then  prevailing.  In  the  latter  case  also,  very 
large  amounts  of  manure  and  fertilizer  were  employed. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

When  practicable,  students  should  spend  several  laboratory 
periods  in  the  field  comparing  different  methods  of  harvesting,  for 
example :  — 

(1)  Determine  the  proportion  of  the  weight  of  the  shucked  ear 
to  the  aggregate  weight  of  shuck,  leaves,  and  stalk,  all  thoroughly 
air-dried. 


CORN  HARVESTING  205 

(2)  Practice  cutting  and  shocking  corn ;    or  if  the  crop  is  al- 
ready in  shocks,  open  and  remake  several  of  them. 

(3)  Examine  a  number  of  mature  ears  to  ascertain  whether 
the  completeness  of  the  covering  by  the  shuck  has  any  relation 
to  the  amount  of  injury  by  weevils. 

LITERATURE 

DUGGAR,  J.  F.     Ala.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  134. 

REDDING,  R.  J.     Ga.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  74. 

HAYS,  W.  M.,  PARKER,  E.  C.,  and  others.     Minn.  Expr.  Sta., 

Buls.  Nos.  97  and  117. 

MOOREHOUSE,  L.  A.     Okla.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  87. 
HARTLEY,  C.  P.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmer's  Bui.  No.  313. 
ZINTHEO,  C.  J.    U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmer's  Bui.  No.  203. 
BOWMAN,  M.  L.,  and  CROSSLEY,  B.  W.    Corn,  pp.  202-211  ;  370- 

381.    Ames,  la.,  1908. 
SCHULTE,  J.  I.,  and  others.     Rpt.  Office  Expr.  Stas.,  1904,  pp. 

523-533  ;    and   Kan.  Board  Agr.,  Dec.,  1905,  pp.  105-113 

and  218-238. 


CHAPTER   XI 


CORN  — ENEMIES 

MAIZE  suffers  from  a  number  of  insects  and  fungous 
diseases,  although  farmers  usually  do  not  find  it  necessary 
to  treat  the  crop  in  the  field.  The  most  important  corn 
enemies  in  the  South  are  described  in  this  chapter. 

INSECTS 

189.  Bud  worms.  —  This  is  the  larval  or  grub  stage  of  a 
small  beetle,  the  twelve-spotted  lady-bug  (Diabrotica 

12-punctata).  The  beetle 
or  mature  insect  feeds  on 
almost  any  form  of  green 
vegetation  and  may  spe- 
cially be  noticed  early 
in  the  season  on  alfalfa, 
clover,  and  early  vege- 
tables. It  is  only  about 
one  fourth  of  an  inch 
in  length ;  its  color  is  a 
greenish  yellow,  and  on 
its  wing-cases,  or  back, 
are  twelve  black  spots 


FIG.    100.  —  THE    BUDWORM   OF   CORN 
(Diabrotica  12-punctata). 


On  right,  adult  beetle  ;  in  center,  grub  (FiS-    100)-      Tne   eSS  is 

which  bores  into  young  plants  ;   and  on  laid  On  Or  near  the  young 

left,  base  of  a  young  corn  plant  showing  , ,  f, 

holes  made  by  budworms.     (Beetle  and  COrn  .  Plant     SOOn     after 

grub  magnified.)  germination,  at  a  point 

206 


CORN  INSECTS  207 

just  under  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  egg  develops 
into  a  small  white  grub,  with  a  darker  head,  which  bores 
into  the  central  part  of  the  young  stem.  As  a  result,  the 
bud,  or  group  of  central  leaves  of  the  plant,  wilts  and 
usualty  dies.  The  injury  is  practically  confined  to  the 
young  plants  between  the  heights  of  2  and  12  inches. 

No  direct  remedies  have  thus  far  been  found  for  the 
bud  worm.  The  injury  is  worse  in  low  wet  land  and  in 
fields  where  weeds,  corn,  or  certain  other  crops  have  grown. 
Rotation  may  be  of  some  value,  but  the  main  reliance  is 
in  very  late  planting.  Corn  planted  very  early  is  also 
less  apt  to  be  seriously  injured  than  when  planting  is  done 
in  mid-season.  There  seems  to  be  an  advantage  in  caus- 
ing the  plant  to  pass  as  rapidly  as  possible  through  the 
earlier  stages  of  growth,  during  which  it  is  subject  to  this 
injury.  To  this  end,  small  amounts  of  nitrate  of  soda, 
applied  at  time  of  planting  near  each  hill,  are  believed  to 
be  helpful.  Fields  where  injury  from  budworm  are  ex- 
pected are  usually  planted  quite  thickly.  When  many 
of  the  young  plants  are  being  injured  by  budwrorms  it  is 
sometimes  considered  advantageous  to  "  bar  off "  the  corn 
rows  and  thus  warm  the  soil. 

190.  Cutworms.  —  There  are  many  species  of  cut- 
worms, all  of  which  cut  the  young  corn  plant.  They  are 
worse  where  clover,  weeds,  or  other  rank  vegetation  has 
grown  the  preceding  year.  It  is  sometimes  recommended 
that  cutworms  be  poisoned  just  before  the  time  of  planting 
corn  by  scattering  over  the  field  the  following  preparation : 
1  pound  Paris  green,  1  bushel  wheat  bran,  thoroughly 
mixed  and  moistened  with  sufficient  water  to  which  has 
been  added  one  quart  of  molasses. 


208 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


FIG.  101.  —  EGGS  OF  CORN  EAR-WORM  ON  CORN  SILKS. 


CORN  INSECTS 


209 


191.  Grasshoppers.  —  The  usual  means  of  combating 
these  consist  in  driving  special  catching  devices,  called 
"  hopper-dozers/'  through  surrounding  areas  of  meadow 
or  weeds,  where  the  grasshoppers  congregate. 


FIG.  102.  —  THE  CORN  EAR-WORM  AT  WORK  IN  THE  TIP  OF  AN  EAB 
p  OF  GREEN  CORN. 


210 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


192.    Corn   ear-worm,  or   cotton   boll   worm   (Heliothis 
obsoleta) .  —  This  is  the  same  insect  as  the  cotton  boll  worm 

(see  Par.  359).  The  eggs 
are  laid  by  a  large  grayish 
brown  moth,  which,  es- 
pecially towards  evening, 
may  be  found  hovering 
over  fields  of  corn,  cotton, 
and  cowpeas.  The  eggs 
are  placed  on  the  silks 
(Fig.  101),  leaves,  or 
other  parts  of  the  corn 
plant.  After  these  hatch, 
the  young  worms,  or  lar- 
vae, find  their  way  into  the 
tip  of  the  ear  and  destroy 
the  tip  grains.  Their  in- 
jury consists,  not  only  in 
the  grains  destroyed  (Fig. 
102),  but  in  admitting 
rain  to  the  ear  and  possi- 
bly in  giving  easier  access 
to  weevils.  The  remedy 
usually  recommended  is 
plowing  the  land  in  the 
late  fall  or  winter.  The 
object  in  this  is  to  break 
up  the  burrows  under- 
ground in  which  this  in- 

Fio.    103.  —  THE    CORN    EAR-WORM    gect     in  the  chrysalis,   or 

PREYING  ON  THE  TENDER  LEAVES 


OF  CORN. 


pupal    condition,   spends 


CORN  INSECTS  211 

the  winter  (see  Par.  360).  This  insect  sometimes  seriously 
injures  the  "  bud  "  or  upper  leaves  of  corn  plants  several 
feet  high  (Fig.  103). 

193.  Chinch   bugs   (Blissus  leucopterus) .     Fortunately 
this  pest,  which  is  serious  in  the  corn  belt  and  sometimes 
in  the  Southwest,  seldom  occurs  in  the  southeastern  part 
of  the  United  States.     When  present,  chinch  bugs  crawl 
in  hordes  from  the  wheat  fields  toward  the  growing  corn. 
The  corn  field  may  be  pro- 
tected by  surrounding  it  by 

a  narrow  strip  of  plowed 
land,  kept  constantly  culti- 
vated, so  as  to  form  a  deep 
layer  of  dust ;  or  by  sur- 
rounding the  corn  field  with 
a  deep  furrow,  the  bottom 
of  which  is  kept  dusty  by 
frequently  dragging  through 
it  a  heavy  log.  At  inter- 
vals in  the  bottom  of  this 
furrow  deeper  holes  may  be 
made.  When  the  small  in- 
sects accumulate  in  these 
holes,  they  are  killed  by  the 
use  of  kerosene. 

194.  Weevils    (C***^ 

oryza   (Fig.    104),  and  grain  Greatly  enlarged.     (Photo  by  W.  E. 

moths.  —  The    rice    weevil  Hinds.) 

attacks  the  matured  corn  grain  in  the  fields  and  con- 
tinues its  depredations  in  the  crib,  during  almost  every 
month  in  the  year.  Some  eggs  are  laid  while  the  ears 


212  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

are  still  in  the  field;  and  later 
generations  develop  in  the  crib. 
Early  varieties  and  those  with  soft 
grains  are  most  susceptible  to  in- 
jury (Fig.  105).  Late  planting  of 
medium  or  late  varieties  escapes 
injury,  or  reduces  the  number  of 
weevils  finding  access  to  the  ears 
in  the  field.  Doubtless  much  can 
be  done  to  lessen  the  weevil  injury 
by  selecting  corn  with  a  view  to 
weevil  resistance.  The  qualities 
tending  to  decrease  the  number  of 
weevil,  but  not  entirely  to  avoid 
them,  are  (1)  a  shuck  that  fits 
tightly  over  the  end  of  the  ear  and 
(2)  a  grain  that  is  quite  hard.  Any 
means  that  decrease  the  number 
of  corn  ear- worms  would  indirectly 
reduce  the  injury  from  weevils, 
which  often  enter  the  ear  through 
the  openings  made  by  the  former. 
However,  the  chief  reliance  must 
be  on  fumigating  the  stored  grain 
with  the  vapors  made  by  carbon 
disulfide.  This  liquid  readily 
evaporates,  or  changes  from  a 
liquid  to  a  gaseous  form.  This 
implies  the  necessity  for  tight 

FIG.  105. -AN  EAR  OF  CORN  crib      Qr  f       other  means  of  treat- 
INJURED  BY  WEEVILS.         .  . 

(W.  E.  Hinds.)  ing  the  grain  in  tight   compart- 


CORN  INSECTS 


213 


ments.      A   larger  amount  of  carbon  disulfide  is  needed 

for  the  treatment  of  unshucked  corn  than  in  treating  an 

equal  volume  of  shucked  or  shelled  corn.     The  amount  of 

liquid  to  use  for  each  thousand  cubic  feet  of  space  in  a  bin 

of  shelled  corn  is  from  10  to  20  pounds  if  the  crib  is  very 

tight  and  the  weather  warm. 

Since  these  fumes  are  heavier 

than  air,  the  liquid  may  be 

placed  in  shallow  vessels  near 

the  top  of  the  pile  of  grain ; 

or  it  may  be  poured  directly 

on  the  top  of  the  pile  of  corn. 

It  is  best  to   cover  the  pile 

while  under  treatment  with 

grain  sheets  or  other  heavy 

cloth,  leaving  it  thus  tightly 

covered  for  twenty-four  hours. 

The  vapors  of  carbon  di- 
sulfide are  very  inflamma- 
ble, so  that  it  is  dangerous 
for  a  lighted  pipe,  cigarette, 
or  lantern  to  be  brought  into 
the  barn  or  crib  while  the 
odor  of  carbon  disulfide  is 
present.  This  liquid  should  be  handled  as  carefully  as 
gasolene.  The  fumes  should  not  be  inhaled  for  many 
minutes,  but  a  few  breaths  of  this  gas  do  not  injure 
men  or  domestic  animals. 

The  larvae  of  several  tiny  grain-moths,  among  them  the 
Indian  meal  moth  (Fig.  107),  injure  stored  corn.  The  rem- 
edy for  all  of  these  consists  in  the  use  of  carbon  disulfide. 


FIG.  106.  —  LARVA  OF  ANGOUMOIS 

MOTH  IN  A  GRAIN  OF  CORN. 
Enlarged  five  times.  (W.  E.  Hinds.) 


214 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


FUNGOUS  DISEASES 

While  the  corn  plant  is  subject  to  a  few  diseases,  these 
are  not  known  to  cause  much  injury  in  the  South,  with 
the  exception  of  those  mentioned 
below,  which  injure  chiefly  the  ear. 
195.  Corn  smut  (  Ustilago  may- 
dis).  —  The  presence  of  this  disease 
is  first  shown  by  a  large  swelling 
on  the  ear,  the  stem,  the  tassel,  or 
the  leaf  (Fig.  108).  At  first,  this 
protruding  mass  is  covered  with  a 
whitish  skin,  which  later  bursts, 
setting  free  clouds  of  black  powder. 
These  powdery  particles  are  the 
spores,  or  bodies  answering  the 
purpose  of  seed,  and  serving  to 
spread  the  disease  to  the  next  year's 
crop.  These  spores  gain  entrance 
to  the  young  plant  after  it  has 
appeared  above  ground.  The  spread  of  this  disease  is 
due  to  smut  masses  left  in  the  soil  by  a  preceding  corn 
crop,  or  blown  in  by  the  wind  from  surrounding  corn 
fields.  No  treatment  of  the  seed  is  effective. 

The  method  of  spread  of  the  disease  suggests  the  means 
of  decreasing  it  in  subsequent  crops,  by  gathering  and 
burning  the  smut  masses  before  the  whitish  skin  breaks 
and  sets  free  the  spores.  On  the  same  principle,  rotation 
of  crops  is  advisable,  especially  if  this  results  in  growing 
corn  on  land  where  no  surrounding  fields  in  the  preceding 
year  matured  smut  spores. 


FIG.  107.  —  THE  INDIAN 

MEAL  MOTH. 
The    larvae   injure   corn. 
Enlarged.      (Photo  by  W. 
E.  Hinds.) 


CORN  INSECTS 


215 


196.  Ear  rots  of  corn.  —  These  have  been  found  to  be 
due  to  minute  organisms,  most  of  them  belonging  to  two 
groups  of  fungi 
(Diplodia  and 
Fusarium),  and  in 
rarer  cases  to  un- 
identified bacteria. 

In  some  of  the  ear 
rots,  the  shuck,  as 
well  as  the  grain  and 
cob,  is  discolored, 
while  in  others  only 
the  grains  and  cobs 
are  reduced  to  a 
shriveled  mass  cov- 
ered with  white, 
pink,  or  reddish 
mold-like  threads. 

The  Illinois  Ex- 
periment Station 
(Bui.  133)  has  found 
these  fungous  rots 
to  be  spread  by 
spores  left  on  the 
shanks  of  the  corn 
crop  of  the  two  pre- 
ceding years.  Hence, 
the  remedy  is  plant- 
ing of  corn  on  a  field 
on  or  near  which  no  corn,  injured  by  these  diseases,  has  been 
grown  for  the  last  two  years.  Doubtless  the  burning  of  the  dis- 
eased stalks  promptly  after  harvest  would  tend  to  prevent  the 
spread  of  ear  rots  to  subsequent  crops. 


FIG.  108.  —  CORN  SMUT. 


216  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

(1)  Examine  the  tips  of  a  number  of  ears  of  corn  and  make  an 
estimate  of  the  percentage  of  ears  injured  in  that  field  by  the  corn 
ear-worm. 

(2)  Make  germination  tests,  preferably  in  the  open  ground, 
of  100  weevil-eaten  and  of  100  sound  kernels ;  determine 

(a)  the  percentage  of  each  that  germinates,  and 
(6)  the  difference,  if  any,  in  the  size  of  the  young  plants 
when  a  few  weeks  old. 

LITERATURE 

BURRELL,  T.  J.,  and  BARRETT,  T.  J.     (Ear  rots.)     111.  Expr.  Sta., 

Bui.  No.  133. 
STEVENS,  F.  L.     (Ear  rots.)    N.  C.   Expr.   Sta.,   Rpt.   1907-'8, 

pp.  37-39. 
BISHOP,  F.  C.,  and  others.    (Corn  ear-worm.)     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr., 

Farmer's  Buls.  Nos.  212  and  290. 
BOWMAN,  M.  L.,  and   CROSSLEY,  B.  W.     Corn   (Diseases  and 

insects),  pp.  229-260.    Ames,  la.,  1908. 
CHITTENDEN,  F.  H.,  and  others.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Ent., 

Circ.  No.  59  ;  and  Kan.  Board  Agr.,  Dec.,  1905,  pp.  258-264. 


CHAPTER  XII 
RICE  —  ORYZA  SATIVA 

RICE  is  one  of  the  grains  included  in  the  great  family 
of  the  grasses.  Its  seeds  are  borne  in  loose  heads  or 
panicles  at  the  top  of  each  stem  somewhat  as  in  oats 
(Fig.  109) .  The  root  system  is  shallow  and  fibrous.  Rice 
is  grown  along  coasts,  from  the  Carolinas  south,  and  also 
in  certain  irrigable,  low,  inland  regions.  It  is  grown  only 
in  tropical  and  subtropical  regions  and  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  temperate  zone.  It  is  cultivated  in  practically 
all  countries  having  such  climates. 

Rice  serves  as  the  principal  food  for  a  larger  number 
of  human  beings  than  any  other  crop.  In  the  densely 
populated  countries  of  Asia,  especially  in  China,  India, 
and  Japan,  it  is  the  principal  article  of  human  food. 

Rice  was  introduced  into  South  Carolina  near  the  close 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  Until  quite  recently  rice  pro- 
duction in  the  United  States  was  centered  in  South  Caro- 
lina and  in  the  adjacent  coastal  regions  of  North  Carolina, 
Georgia,  and  Florida.  After  the  civil  war,  rice  culture 
developed  in  the  Mississippi  bottoms  in  Louisiana,  where 
a  small  amount  had  been  grown  before  the  war.  In  the 
eighties,  the  rice  industry  was  established  in  the  south- 
western part  of  Louisiana.  At  the  present  time,  this  latter 
region,  with  the  adjacent  portion  of  Texas,  produces  the 
greater  part  of  the  American  crop,  which,  in  recent  years, 

217 


FIG.  10P.  —  BUNDLES  OF  Two  VARIETIES  OF  RICE. 
218 


RICE 


219 


has  been  about  600,000,000  pounds  of  rough  rice  annually. 
In  the  early  years  of  the  twentieth  century,  a  third  rice- 
growing  area  has  been  developed  in  the  prairies  in  the 
southeastern  part  of  Arkansas.  In  the  United  States  the 
area  devoted  to  rice  increased  threefold  in  the  sixteen 
years  ending  in  1905,  the  area  reported  that  year  being 
nearly  half  a  million  acres,  and  the  yield  more  than 
13,600,000  bushels. 

197.  Composition.  —  Rice  is  a  very  starchy  grain.  A 
human  diet  made  up  largely  of  this  cereal  should  also 
include  foods  rich  in  nitrogen,  such  as  seeds  of  cowpeas 
and  other  legumes,  fish,  lean  meat,  eggs,  or  milk.  The 
composition  of  rice  and  its  products  is  shown  below : 1  - 


NITRO- 

WATER 

ASH 

PROTEIN 

CRUDE 
FIBER 

GEN- 
FREE 

FAT 

EXTRACT 

Prepared  rice 

12.79 

0.40 

7.38 

0.33 

78.84 

0*24 

Rice  polish 

9.73 

5.50 

12.73 

2.20 

59.40 

10.44 

Rice  bran  .    T 

10.05 

11.17 

11.35 

16.10 

39.76 

11.57 

Rice  hulls  .    . 

10.11 

14.95 

1.88 

39.11 

33.62 

0.33 

Rough  rice 

5.73 

5.89 

7.75 

8.25 

70.13 

2.31 

Rice  straw  .     . 

6.76 

12.88 

3.00 

38.98 

42.11 

1.27 

McDonnell's  analyses  2  indicate  that  a  rice  crop  of  35 
bushels  (nearly  9  bags)  and  1800  pounds  of  ripe  straw 
removes  from  the  soil,  in  round  numbers, 

12  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid, 
29  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
35  pounds  of  potash. 

1  La.  Expr.  Sta.,  Feed  Stuffs  Report,  1908-1909. 

2  S.  C.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  59 


220  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

198.  Uses.  —  The  chief  use  of  rice  is  to  feed  mankind, 
for  which  purpose  it  is  specially  prepared  by  the  removal  of 
the  hull  and  by  other  manufacturing  processes.  However, 
the  polishing  of  the  grains  results  in  removing  some  of  the 
most  nutritious  part. 

Rice  polish,  one  of  the  flourlike  by-products  of  the  rice 
mill,  is  a  nutritious  and  palatable  food  for  any  class  of 
live-stock.  Rice  hulls  have  but 
little  food  value  and  even  when 
ground,  their  use  is.  undesirable. 
Rice  bran  usually  consists  of  the 
seed  coats  to  which  adheres  much 

FIGS.  IIO\ND  in.  -TWO  of   the    nutritious    layers    of    the 

TYPES  OF  RICE.  grain,    mixed    with   some   ground 

The  Honduras  on  the  left  rice  hulls  and  polish.     It  is  inferior 

rin/ht"rrker?elsthof  *  Ceding  value  to  rice  polish. 

Japanese  rice  do  not  break       199.      Varieties.  —  In     oriental 


varieties  of  rice,  but  few  kinds  are 
grown  in  the  United  States.  Chief  among  the  latter  are 
types  known  as  Honduras,  Japan,  and  Gold  Seed  (Figs. 
110  and  111). 

The  types  generally  grown  in  our  southwestern  rice 
fields  are  Japan  and  Honduras,  which  are  described  as 
follows  :  "  The  Japan  has  a  short,  thick  kernel,  a  thick 
hull,  and  heavy  grain.  It  is  not  so  tall  as  the  Honduras, 
and  the  straw  is  smaller  and  green  when  the  grain  is  ripe. 
The  percentage  of  bran  in  the  Japan  is  small.  Since  the 
grains  do  not  break  so  badly,  it  will  mill  more  head  rice 
(high-grade  unbroken  grains)  than  the  Honduras.  The 
market  price  for  Japan,  however,  is  a  little  less  than  for 


EICE  221 

Honduras,  but  the  yield  is  greater.  The  Honduras  has  a 
large  grain,  a  tall,  stiff  stalk,  and  is  not  so  easily  blown 
down."  (S.  A.  Knapp,  in  Farmer's  Bui.  No.  110,  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agr.) 

200.  Soils  and  fertilizers.  —  Since  rice  is  usually  grown 
on  land   subjected  to  irrigation  and  thereby  enriched, 
fertilizers  are  seldom  employed  in  the  United  States  on 
this  crop.     Hence  relatively  little  is  known  of  the  fertilizer 
requirements  of  rice.     In  oriental  countries,  rice  is  highly 
manured. 

Experiments  in  Louisiana  indicate  that  phosphate  in- 
creases the  yield  and  that  potash  probably  helps  to  harden 
the  grain  and  straw. 

201.  Sowing.  —  While  broadcast  sowing  is  not  unusual, 
the  best  and  most  common  method  consists  in  planting  rice 
with  a  grain  drill.     This  causes  the  seeds  to  be  covered  to 
a  more  uniform  depth  than  is  possible  by  broadcast  sowing. 
The  quantity  of  seed  generally  employed  is  one  to  two 
bushels  or  one  fourth  to  one  half  barrel  per  acre.     Usually 
the  grain  drill  should  be  preceded,  and  not  followed,  by  the 
roller. 

Occasionally  in  sowing  rice  that  is  to  be  irrigated  im- 
mediately, South  Carolina  farmers  mix  the  seed  with  clay 
and  water,  so  that  when  water  is  admitted  to  the  land,  the 
seed  will  not  float. 

202.  Implements  and  Jabor.  —  Only  where  preparation 
has  been  made  for  draining  the  land,  can  labor-saving 
implements  be  used  in  preparing  for  and  sowing  the  crop 
and  in  harvesting.     Plowing  is  usually  done  in  spring,  but 
a  preliminary  plowing  is  often  desirable  in  the  early  part  of 
the  preceding  fall.     The  depth  of  plowing  must  be  governed 


222 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


by  local  conditions.  While  deep  plowing  might  otherwise 
be  desirable,  it  risks  inconvenience  in  harvesting,  since  in 
fields  deeply  plowed  the  wheels  of  the  binder  sink  too  deep 
if  much  rain  falls  just  before  harvest  time.  The  land  must 
be  further  prepared  by  harrowing  (Fig.  112). 

In  the  rice  fields  of  South  Carolina,  which  are  very  small 
and  poorly  drained,  planting  is  done  chiefly  by  hand  labor. 


FIG.  112.  —  PREPARING  FOR  RICE  IN  LOUISIANA. 

The  employment  of,  hand  labor  in  this  region  for  planting 
and  harvesting  the  crop  has  caused  the  decline  of  the  rice 
industry  here,  where  the  cost  of  production  is  necessarily 
much  higher  than  on  the  prairies  of  Louisiana,  Texas,  and 
Arkansas,  where  machinery  is  used  for  all  of  these  opera- 
tions. 


EICE  225 

203.  Irrigation.  —  No  extensive  rice   industry  has  de- 
veloped in  the  United  States  except  where  irrigation  was 
possible.     Irrigation  is  necessary  to  large  yields  and  to 
the  most  economical  production.     Lands  must  be  chosen 
that  can  easily  be  irrigated.     For  this  purpose  the  main 
qualities  desired  are  slight,  if  any,  slope  of  the  surface,  and 
a  retentive  subsoil.     The  latter  is  important  so  that  irriga- 
tion water  may  not  be  lost  too  rapidly  through  the  soil,  and 
also  because  such  soils,  after  being  drained,  best  permit  the 
use  of  heavy  machinery  in  the  planting  and  harvesting  of 
the  crop. 

Water  for  irrigation  is  supplied  in  the  Louisiana  and 
Texas  rice  districts  by  pumping,  the  source  being  either 
adjacent  bayous  and  rivers  or  an  underground  supply, 
found  in  southwest  Louisiana  at  no  great  depth.  In  the 
new  Arkansas  rice-growing  region,  water  is  secured  from 
bored  wells.  In  South  Carolina,  irrigation  is  accomplished 
by  admitting  the  water  of  the  rivers  when  the  fresh  water 
is  raised  by  the  high  tide,  while  the  drainage  of  rice  fields 
is  accomplished  at  periods  of  low  tide. 

After  a  supply  of  water  has  been  provided  and  brought 
to  the  highest  part  of  the  fields  by  a  -system  of  canals,  low 
levees  must  be  constructed,  chiefly  with  the  plow,  so  as  to 
maintain  the  water  at  almost  a  uniform  depth  through- 
out a  given  section  of  the  field.  This  should  range 
between  3  and  6  inches  on  any  one  section  of  the  field 
(Fig.  113).  Variations  in  the  depth  of  irrigation  water 
cause  unevenness  in  the  time  of  maturing  and  hence  injury 
to  the  quality  of  the  product. 

204.  Irrigation  practice.  —  In  Louisiana,   the    drained 
fields  having  been  sown  by  the  use  of  a  grain  drill,  the 


224 


RICE  225 

young  plants  are  allowed  to  grow,  if  practicable,  without 
irrigation  until  the  rice  is  8  inches  high,  since  the  very 
young  plants  are  liable  to  scalding  in  shallow  water.  How- 
ever, it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  irrigate  in  order  to  cause 
the  seed  to  germinate.  When  the  plants  have  reached  a 
height  of  8  inches,  the  field  is  covered  with  water  to  a 
depth  of  3  to  6  inches.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the 
water  does  not  become  stagnant,  which  is  prevented  by 
providing  for  a  continuous  inflow  into  the  high  part  of  the 
section  and  for  a  continuous  outflow  from  the  lower  part  of 
each  section  of  the  field. 

Irrigation  in  rice  culture  largely  takes  the  place  of  cul- 
tivation, since  it  prevents  the  growth  of  many  weeds 
and  encourages  the  growth  of  the  rice  plant. 

Near  the  time  of  harvest,  the  water  is  drawn  off  so  that 
the  fields  may  become  firm  enough  for  the  teams  and 
machinery  engaged  in  harvesting. 

The  practice  in  South  Carolina  differs  from  the  above. 
The  water  is  admitted  as  soon  as  the  seed  is  sown,  and  it  is 
kept  on  the  land  4  to  6  days  to  sprout  the  grain.  The  field 
is  then  drained.  When  the  plants  are  a  few  inches  high, 
another  brief  watering  is  given  and  the  land  again  drained. 
Soon  afterwards,  irrigation  is  repeated,  the  water  being 
kept  on  the  land  20  to  30  days.  It  is  then  drawn  off  and 
the  field  hoed.  No  more  water  is  admitted  until  jointing 
of  the  plants  begins,  when  they  are  hoed  and  the  water 
again  turned  on,  to  remain  until  about  8  days  before  the 
harvest,  when  it  is  withdrawn.  Care  is  taken  to  secure 
a  constant  change  of  water  so  as  to  avoid  stagnation. 

205.  Upland  rice.  —  There  are  upland  strains  of  rice 
that  have  become  accustomed  to  being  grown  without 
Q 


226  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

irrigation,  but  which  cannot  be  distinguished  from  lowland 
rice.  This  so-called  upland  rice  succeeds  better  when 
irrigated.  For  the  culture  of  rice  without  irrigation,  the 
best  soils  are  drained  ponds  or  moist  bottom  lands. 

Since  the  crop  must  be  kept  free  from  grass  and  weeds  by 
tillage,  upland  rice  should  be  sown  in  drills,  as  close  to- 
gether as  practicable  without  preventing  the  use  of  culti- 
vating implements.  The  usual  distance  between  rows  is 
two  and  one  half  to  three  feet.  Custom  varies  as  to  the 
thickness  of  planting  in  the  drill.  It  is  most  convenient  for 
the  seeds  to  be  dropped,  a  number  in  a  place  at  distances  of 
seven  to  twelve  inches  apart. 

Several  cultivations  and  one  or  two  hoeings  are  usually 
given.  The  yields  are  generally  much  less  than  on  irri- 
gated land,  and  the  expense  of  tillage  is  greater  than  that 
of  irrigation.  However,  on  soils  especially  suited  to  this 
crop  and  where  labor  is  not  expensive,  it  may  be  advisable 
to  introduce  the  culture  of  rice,  especially  for  use  in  the  im- 
mediate neighborhood. 

The  quality  of  upland  rice  is  regarded  as  somewhat  in- 
ferior to  that  of  irrigated  rice,  probably  because  of  imper- 
fect filling  of  some  of  the  grains,  and  differences  in  the  time 
of  maturity  among  the  different  plants.  Moreover,  the 
small  rice  hullers  which  are  usually  employed  (in  connec- 
tion with  a  gin  or  grist  mill),  in  localities  where  only  small 
areas  of  rice  are  grown,  do  not  turn  out  a  product  as  highly 
polished  as  that  obtained  in  the  large  and  well-equipped 
rice  mills.  However,  the  dark  and  unpolished  rice  of  the 
small,  mills  is  more  nutritious  than  the  pearly-white  article 
of  commerce,  for  the  reason  that  the  former  contains  more 
of  the  outer  layers,  which  are  the  richest  in  protein. 


RICE 


227 


Upland  rice  should  usually  be  fertilized  with  acid  phos- 
phate, and,  if  thought  best,  with  potash  and  nitrogen. 

206.  Harvesting.  —  The  nature  of  the  soil  in  Louisiana 
and  Askansas  permits  the  drainage  of  the  fields,  so  that  the 
rice  crop  is  there  harvested  by  the  use  of  self-binders. 

After  the  grain  has  been  somewhat  further  cured,  it  is  carefully 
shocked  (Fig.  114).  "  First,  shock  on  dry  ground ;  second,  brace  the 


FIG.  114. — A  RICE  FIELD  AFTER  HARVEST. 

bundles  carefully  against  each  other,  so  as  to  resist  wind  or  storms ; 
third,  let  the  shock  be  ...  capped  carefully  with  bundles.  .  .  .  Slow 


228  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 

curing  in  the  shade  produces  the  toughness  of  kernel  necessary  to 
withstand  the  milling  processes.  In  the  shock  every  head  should 
be  shaded  and  sheltered  from  storm  as  much  as  possible.  The 
rice  should  be  left  in  the  shock  until  the  straw  is  cured  and  the 
rice  is  hard."  (S.  A.  Knapp,  in  Farmer's  Bui.  No.  110,  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agr.) 

Threshing  is  done  in  the  same  way  as  with  other  grains, 
usually  in  Louisiana,  directly  from  the  shock.  The  rough  rice, 
usually  in  bags  or  barrels  of  162  pounds,  is  sold  to  the  rice 
mills. 

Rough  rice  weighs  45  pounds  per  bushel  and  yields  about  half 
its  weight  of  marketable  rice,  besides  cracked  rice,  polish,  and 
other  by-products. 

A  fair  yield  in  irrigated  regions  is  10  to  18  barrels  or  bags  per 
acre. 

207.  Weeds.  —  The  rice  planter  encounters  his  great- 
est difficulties  through  the  invasion  of  the  field  by  a  mul- 
titude of  troublesome  weeds.  The  general  methods  of 
control  are  plowing  at  opportune  times  and  flooding.  The 
most  troublesome  weed  is  red  rice. 

Red  rice  is  frequently  accidentally  sown  with  seed  rice.  It  is  a 
strain  different  from  the  types  of  rice  cultivated  in  the  United 
States  and  comes  only  from  red  rice  seed  ;  but  this  plant  is  capable 
of  crossing  with  cultivated  rice.  A  method  recommended  for 
ridding  the  land  of  this  and  of  other  weeds  is  to  plow  the  field 
soon  after  harvest,  so  as  to  cause  the  seed  of  red  rice  and  of 
other  weeds  to  germinate.  The  young  weeds  are  then  killed  by 
frost,  or,  in  some  cases,  mowed  and  burned. 

Another  method  of  fighting  true  weeds,  other  than  red  rice  and 
other  members  of  the  grass  family,  consists  in  mowing  the  mass  of 
young  rice  and  weeds  in  the  late  spring  or  early  summer,  with  the 
expectation  that  the  rice  will  then  develop  a  central  shoot  while 
the  weeds  will  not  make  further  growth. 

Early  spring  plowing  is  sometimes  practiced  to  induce  the  weed 
seeds  to  germinate ;  the  young  plants  are  then  killed  by  culti- 


EICE  229 

vation  before  the  rice  is  sown.  But  this  may  result  in  making 
the  date  of  planting  too  late  for  best  yields  of  rice. 

Another  method  of  fighting  weeds  consists  in  applying  no  water 
for  a  year  or  more,  meantime  not  using  the  land  for  rice  or  even 
for  any  crop.  In  this  way,  the  dry-land  weeds  crowd  out  the 
water-loving  weeds,  which  latter  are  the  most  serious  enemies  of 
the  Louisiana  rice  grower. 

Insect  enemies.  —  Rice  is  not  greatly  injured  by  many  insects. 
Among  insect  pests  is  the  larva  or  grub  of  a  small  gray  beetle, 
the  water  weevil  (Lissorhoptrus  simplex}.  The  grubs  in  summer 
feed  on  the  roots  of  the  plants,  giving  to  the  clumps  of  plants 
affected  a  yellowish  appearance.  ^The  remedy  consists  in  pre- 
venting the  stagnation  of  the  water  and,  if  practicable,  in  the 
temporary  withdrawal  of  the  water  and  the  drying  out  of  the  land. 

Fungous  diseases.  —  Rice  blast,  also  called  "  rotten  neck,"  is 
thought  to  be  caused  by  a  fungus  ( Piricularia  oryzce) .  The  sheath 
node  is  attacked,  that  is  the  node  in  which  the  head  is  forming,  and 
the  head  may  fail  to  fill  out  or  may  break  off.  Experts  are  not 
agreed  as  to  any  practicable  treatment  for  this  disease. 

Rice  rust  causes  the  leaves  to  die  and  the  grain  to  be  light.  The 
cause  is  not  definitely  known.  This  trouble  has  been  prevented 
by  using  400  pounds  of  kainit  per  acre. 

Rice  smut  ( Tilletia  horrida)  occasionally  occurs,  filling  the  kernel 
with  a  mass  of  black  spores.  According  to  Anderson,  it  can  be 
prevented  either  by  (1)  scalding  the  seed  for  10  minutes  hi  water 
kept  at  a  temperature  of  133°  F.,  or  (2)  by  moistening  the  seed 
for  about  2  hours  in  a  solution  of  one  ounce  of  formalin  to  3 
gallons  of  water. 

Rice  birds  or  bobolinks  (Dolichonyx  oryzivorus}, — These  birds 
prey  on  the  ripening  grain.  Men  and  boys  armed  with  shot 
guns  are  employed  in  some  localities  to  frighten  these  birds  from 
the  rice  fields. 

LABORATORY   EXERCISE 

If  seed  heads  or  rough  (unhulled)  rice  can  be  obtained,  write  a 
description  of  the  seed  and  its  covering,  and  of  the  arrangement 
of  seeds  on  the  branches. 


230  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


LITERATURE 

KNAPP,  S.  A.    Rice  Culture  in  the  United  States.     U.  S.  Dept. 

Agr.,  Farmer's  Buls.  Nos.  110  and  417. 
KNAPP,  S.  A.    Rice  Culture  in  the  United  States.     U.  S.  Dept. 

Agr.,  Div.  Bot.,  Bui.  No.  22. 

KNAPP,  S.  A.    Rice.     Bailey's  Cyclo.  Agr.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  534-539. 
STUBBS,  W.  C.    La.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  24. 
DODSON,  W.  R.    La.  Expr.  Sta.,  Buls.  Nos.  50,  61,  and  77. 
DODSON,  W.  R.    Red  Rice,  La.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  50. 
ANDERSON,  A.  P.    Rice  Blast  and  Rice  Smut.     S.  C.  Expr.  Sta., 

Bui.  No.  41. 

METCALF,  H.    Blast  of  Rice.     S.  C.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  121. 
McDonnell,  C.  C.    A  Chemical  Investigation  of  the  Rice  Plant. 

S.  C.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  59. 

NELSON,  R.  J.     Rice  Culture.     Ark.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  94. 
VINCENHELLER,  W.  G.    Rice  Growing  in  Arkansas.     Ark.  Expr. 

Sta.,  Bui.  No.  89. 
BEAL,  H.  W.    Extension  of   Rice  Culture.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.. 

Farmer's  Bui.  No.  305. 
AUSTIN,  A.     Rice.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Div.  Sta.,  Rpt.  No.  6. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE    SORGHUMS  —  ANDROPOGON  SORGHUM    (OR    SOR- 
GHUM VULGARE) 

THE  sorghums  comprise  a  very  interesting  group  of 
diverse  sub-species  grown  over  a  wide  range  and  used  for  a 
variety  of  purposes.  Some  kinds  or  races  are  used  for  the 
making  of  sirup,  and  are  sometimes  erroneously  known  as 
"  sugar-millet "  ;  some  are  grown  for  the  grain  in  the  top  or 
head;  one  provides  the  material  from  which  brooms  are 
made ;  they  all  yield  forage,  of  different  degrees  of  excel- 
lence. The  group  belongs  to  the  Graminece,  or  grass  family. 

THE  SORGHUMS  IN  GENERAL 

208.  Groups    of    sorghum.  —  The    sorghums    may    be 
divided  into  three  groups,  all  of  the  same  botanical  species. 
These  classes  are :   (1)  saccharine  or  sweet  sorghums,  grown 
for  forage  and  sirup ;   (2)  nonsaccharine  or  grain  sorghums, 
including  kafir  and  milo,  which  latter  are  important  grain 
and  forage  crops  in  the  dry  climate  of  the  southwestern  part 
of  the  United  States ;  (3)  broom-corn,  from  which  brooms 
and  brushes  are  made.     There  are  a  number  of  varieties  of 
each  class,  only  the  most  important  of  which  can  be  men- 
tioned here. 

209.  General    description.  —  The  sorghums  are   giant 
grasses  with  stout,  solid,  pithy  stems.     The  leaves  are  long 
and  broad,  but  smaller  than  those  of  corn.     The  heads  are 
of  considerable  size  and  varying  shape  and  are  borne  at  the 
top  of  the  stems.     The  sorghums  have  strong  root  systems, 
made  up  of  numerous  fibrous  parts. 

231 


232 


SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 


All  kinds  grow  slowly  during  the  first  few  weeks  of  life, 
at  which  time  they  are  easily  overrun  by  weeds ;  therefore 
they  make  their  best  growth  on  clean  land. 

210.  Effects  on  the  soil.  —  The  sorghums  are  generally 
regarded  as  the  most  exhaustive  among  the  ordinary  crops 
of   the  farm.      They  leave  the  land  in  an  unfavorable 
mechanical  condition,  which  is  due  chiefly  to  the  following 
causes :  — 

(1)  The  presence  of  clods  held  together  by  the  matted 
roots  of  the  stubble ; 

(2)  The  slowness  with  which  the  stubble  and  other  re- 
mains of  the  crop  decay ; 

(3)  The  dry  condition  in  which  the  soil  is  left,  due  to  the 
large  amount  of  leaf  surface  engaged,  up  to  the  time  of  har- 
vest, in  throwing  off  moisture  derived  from  the  soil. 

211.  Composition.  —  In  all  classes  of  sorghum,  the  stems 
and  leaves,  which  are  the  parts  used  for  green  or  cured  forage, 
are  rich  in  carbohydrates  (starch  and  sugar),  and  poor  in 
protein.     Likewise,  the  seeds  of  all  sorghums  are  rich  in 
carbohydrates  and  slightly  richer  than  corn  in  protein. 

Composition  of  Forage  and  Seed  of  Various  Sorghums 


WATER 

PROTEIN 

FAT, 

ETC. 

NITRO- 
GEN- 
FREE 
EXTRACT 

FIBER 

ASH 

Saccharine  sorghum, 
cured  plant  .     .     . 
Kafir,  cured  stover  . 
Kafir  grain  .... 
Milo  grain   .... 
Saccharine  sorghum 
seed 

28.0 
13.3 
9.9 
9.7 

128 

4.0 
5.5 
11.0 
10.7 

9  1 

3.0 
1.7 
3.1 

2.8 

3  6 

37.0 
42.0 
71.2 
72.2 

698 

24.0 
27.9 
2.8 
3.1 

2.6 

4.0 
9.3 
1.6 
2.3 

2  1 

THE  SORGHUMS  233 

212.  Origin  and   crossing.  —  All  three  classes  of   sor- 
ghums are  thought  to  trace  back  to  the  same  ancestor  and 
to  be  natives  of  tropical  Africa.     In  some  eastern  countries, 
the  seeds  of  some  of  the  sorghums  are  important  human 
foods. 

The  various  sorghums  were  introduced  into  the  United 
States  in  1853,  and  at  intervals  throughout  the  next  few 
decades. 

Sorghums  of  all  kinds  freely  cross  with  each  other,  the 
light  pollen  being  spread  by  the  wind.  Therefore,  varieties 
from  which  seed  is  to  be  saved  should  not  be  planted 
near  any  other  variety  or  allowed  to  bloom  at  the  same 
time. 

213.  Enemies.  —  In    the    Southern    States,    especially 
from  Louisiana  eastward,  the  yield  of  seed  from  any  class 
of  sorghum  is  quite  uncertain,  and  complete  failures  to 
mature  seed  are  not  infrequent.     The  usual  cause  of  such 
failures  is  the  attack  on  the  flowers  and  kernels  by  a  minute 
insect,  the  sorghum  midge  (Diplosis  sorghicola).     For  this 
no  effective  treatment  is  known.     Probably  some  advan- 
tage would  result  by  planting  this  crop  in  fields  remote 
from  where  sorghum  was  grown  the  previous  year. 

Sorghum  kernel  smut  (Sphacelotheca  sorghi)  is  a  disease 
caused  by  a  fungus  which  destroys  the  individual  grains. 
It  is  easily  prevented  by  either  of  the  following  methods: 

(1)  by  soaking  the  seed  for  planting  for  one  hour  in  a  solu- 
tion of  1  ounce  of  formalin  for  each  2  gallons  of  water ;  or 

(2)  by  scalding  the  planting  seed  for  10   to   12  minutes 
in  water  kept  at  a  temperature  between  134°  and  140°  F. 
Either  of  these  treatments  kills  the  germs  of  the  disease 
without  injuring  the  seed. 


234 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


SACCHARINE  OR  SWEET  SORGHUMS 

214.  Description  and  uses.  —  The  sweet  sorghums  are 
8  to  12  feet  high,  and  are  distinguished  from  other  classes  of 
sorghum  by  the  great  abundance  of  sweet  juice  in  the  stem. 
"  Sugar  millet  "  is  a  local  name  sometimes  given  to  the 
sweet  sorghums,  although  this  plant  is  not  a  millet.  When 
the  word  "sorghum  "  is  used  alone,  it  usually  refers  to  the 
sweet  sorghum. 

This  group  is  used  for  the  production  of  sirup  as  well  as 
for  green  and  cured  forage.  It  is  treated  in  this  book 


FIG.  115.  —  ON  LEFT,  THREE  HEADS  OF  AMBER  SORGHUM;  ON  RIGHT, 
Two  HEADS  OF  RED  KAFIR. 

only  as  a  sirup  crop,  its  cultivation  and  curing  for  feeding 
purposes  belonging  to  books  on  forage  plants.  Sorghum 
has  been  used  to  a  very  limited  extent  as  a  source  of  sugar, 


THE  SORGHUMS  235 

but  in  this  respect  it  cannot  compete  with  sugar-cane  and 
sugar-beets. 

As  a  sirup  plant,  sorghum  is  most  extensively  grown  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  cotton-belt  and  in  the  regions  a 
little  farther  north.  Even  in  the  region  where  sugar-cane 
succeeds,  some  sorghum  sirup  is  made,  for  two  reasons: 
(1)  that  sorghum  grows  on  poorer  land  than  does  sugar- 
cane, and  (2)  that  it  affords  sirup  1  to  2  months  earlier  in 
the  fall  than  does  sugar-cane.  The  sirup 
from  the  latter  is  superior  both  in  yield 
and  quality. 

215.  Varieties.  —  There  are  many  vari- 
eties, which  may  be  divided  into  four 
sub-groups  differing  chiefly  in  the  form 
of  head  and  the  color  and  covering  of 
the  seed :  — 

(1)  Amber  sub-group,  having  large  loose 
heads  with  seeds  borne  on  long,   slender, 
flexible  branches ;   seeds  almost  completely 
covered  by  black  chaff   (glumes),  making 
seeds  and  head  appear  black  (Fig.  115) ; 

one  variety  has  red  chaff.  FIG.   lie.  —  OB- 

(2)  Orange    sub-group,    having     heads    ANGE 
neither  very  open  nor  very  compact ;  seeds  yellowish,  pro- 
jecting beyond  the  dark  chaff  (Fig.  116) ; 

(3)  Sumac,  or  Red-top,  sub-group,  having  short,  very 
compact  heads ;  seeds  small,  brownish  red,  projecting  con- 
siderably beyond  the  very  small  glumes. 

(4)  Goose-neck  sub-group,  so    called  because  the  top 
of  the  stem  curves,  permitting  the  head  to  hang  down 
(Fig.  117).     The  stalks  of  this  variety  near  the  ground 


236 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


sometimes  attain  a  diameter  of  1^  inches.  Where  known, 
this  is  a  favorite  variety  for  the  production  of  sirup,  by 
reason  of  the  large  size  of  stalk,  the  large 
yield  of  cane,  and  the  smaller  amount  of 
labor  required  in  stripping  it. 

The  Amber  varieties  are  early,  requir- 
ing only  about  three  months  to  reach 
maturity.  The  Orange  is  two  or  three 
weeks  later,  the  stems  larger  and  the 
yield  somewhat  greater  than  in  the 
Amber  varieties. 

Sumac,  or  Red-top,  sorghum  is  about 
as  late  as  Orange. 

The  richness  in  sugar  of  any  variety 
may  be  greatly  increased   by  selecting 
seed  a  few  years  from  those  plants  which, 
by  chemical  tests,  show  the  highest  per- 
centages of  sugar.    The  usual  amount  of 
sugar  in  the  juice  is  12  to  16  per  cent. 
216.    Soils   and   fertilizers.  —  Sweet    sorghum    may  be 
grown  on  soils  of  almost  any  character.     Because   of  its 
drought  resistance,  it  is  often  assigned  to  poorer  soil  than 
that  given  to  any  other  crop  outside  of  the  class  of  legumes 
or  soil-improving  plants. 

Sorghum  is  often  grown  without  fertilizer ;  but  on  soils 
where  it  is  necessary  to  fertilize  other  crops,  this  responds 
profitably  to  moderate  applications  of  manure  and  to 
any  commercial  fertilizer  suitable  for  corn  on  the  same 
soil.  Nitrogen  seems  to  be  the  most-  important  con- 
stituent in  a  fertilizer  for  sorghum,  but  it  is  often  advis- 
able to  add  moderate  amounts  of  phosphoric  acid  and 


FIG.  117.  —  GOOSE- 
NECK SORGHUM. 


THE  SORGHUMS  237 

potash.     Fertilizer  should  be  applied  in  the  same  way  as 
to  corn. 

217.  Preparation  and  planting.  —  Because  of  the  slow 
growth  of  the  young  plants,  preparation  of  the  land  should 
be  thorough,  to  promote  as  rapid  growth  as  possible  of  the 
young  plant  and  to  free  the  soil  from  all  growing  weeds  and 
grass.     On  well-drained  land,  planting  is  usually  practiced 
without  ridging,  which,  however,  may  be  necessary  on  poorly 
drained  bottoms.     In  the  dry  climate  of  the  Southwest, 
sorghum  is  sometimes  "listed";  that  is,  planted  in  an  un- 
filled furrow,  considerably  below  the  level  of  the  field. 

A  customary  distance  between  rows  is  3J  feet,  and 
between  single  plants  grown  for  sirup,  3  to  8  inches.  Seed- 
ing is  performed  with  a  planter,  a  few  quarts  sufficing  for 
an  acre. 

When  practicable,  tillage  should  be  given  with  a  weeder 
or  harrow  before  the  plants  appear  and  again  when  they  are 
large  enough  to  escape  injury.  Several  cultivations  or  till- 
ings  with  one-  or  two-horse  cultivators,  and  in  the  Gulf 
States  one  or  more  hoeings,  are  usually  given. 

Sorghum  should  be  planted  several  weeks  later  than  the 
earliest  corn.  The  greater  part  of  the  crop  is  planted  in 
May.  However,  in  the  cotton-belt  sorghum  for  forage 
may  be  planted  as  late  as  July,  though  such  late  planting 
reduces  the  yield. 

218.  Harvesting.  —  When  the  plant  is  thoroughly  ma- 
ture, as  shown  by  the  sweetness  of  the  juice  and  the  ripening 
of  the  grain,  the  heads  are  cut  for  seed,  the  leaves  stripped 
from  the  stem  and  utilized  for  forage,  and  the  stalks  cut  and 
made  into  sirup  in  practically  the  same  way  in  which  sugar- 
cane is  handled. 


FIG.  118. — A  FIELD  OF  BLACK-HULLED  WHITE  KAFIR. 
238 


THE  SORGHUMS 
KAFIR 


239 


219.  Description  and  uses.  —  Kafir,  also  called  "  kafir 
corn,"  has  shorter  stems,  5  to  8  feet  in  height,  and  more 
compact  heads  than  have  the  saccharine  sorghums  (Fig. 
118).  The  heads  are  always  erect  and  the  grain  projects 
well  beyond  the  chaff.  There  are  red  and  white  varieties ; 


FIG.  119.  —  ON  LEFT,  Two  HEADS  OF  MILO  ;  AND  ON  RIGHT,  Two  OF 
BLACK-HULLED  WHITE  KAFIR. 

the  one  most  extensively  grown  is  Black-hulled  White  kafir 
(Fig.  119). 

The  most  valuable  quality  of  this  plant  is  its  drought 
resistance,  which  makes  it  an  important  grain  and  forage 
crop  in  the  dry  climate  of  the  western  part  of  Kansas,  Okla- 
homa, and  Texas,  where  it  is  largely  grown  as  a  substitute  for 
corn,  which  it  exceeds  in  yield  of  grain  in  regions  where  the 
rainfall  is  scant.  East  of  Texas  the  crop  of  grain,  though 


240  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CHOPS 

sometimes  large,  is  uncertain,  as  a  result  of  attacks  by 
insects. 

In  feeding  value,  kafir  grain  is  nearly  equal  to  a  corre- 
sponding weight  of  corn.  It  is  fed  to  all  classes  of  live-stock 
and  is  especially  prized  for  poultry.  There  is  more  need  to 
grind  kafir  than  to  grind  corn.  The  forage  remains  green 
up  to  the  time  of  the  ripening  of  the  grain. 

Kafir  requires  about  four  to  four  and  a  half  months  to 
reach  maturity. 

220.  Soils  and  planting.  —  The  kafir  plant,  thrives  on  a 
variety  of  soils.     It  succeeds  especially  well  on  sod  land 
never  before  cultivated.     Its  cultivation  is  nearly  the  same 
as  that  of  sorghum  grown  for  sirup.     In  the  Southwest, 
kafir  is  often  listed,  which  is  considered  to  be  advantageous 
in  a  dry  season.     There  it  is  sometimes   planted  with  a 
two-row  corn  planter.     The  plants  are  left  3  to  5  inches 
apart  in  the  row  and  the  rows  are   ordinarily   3^   feet 
apart. 

221.  Harvesting. — This  is  usually  done  with  a  corn- 
binder,  but  sometimes  with  a  header  or  device  attached  to  a 
wagon  and  intended  to  cut  and  lift  into  the  wagon  body 
only  the  heads.     Heads  thus  cut  must  be  kept  in  thin  layers 
to  prevent  heating.     The  seeds  are  threshed  from  the  stalk 
by  the  use  of  an  ordinary  grain  thresher. 

MILO 

222.  This  crop  is  also  called  "  milo  maize."    The  stems 
resemble  those  of  kafir ;   the  heads  are  shorter  and  more 
rounded  and  the  seeds  are  more  flattened  than  those  of 
kafir  (Fig.  119).     Milo  is  even  more  drought  resistant  than 


THE  SORGHUMS  241 

kafir  and  may  make  a  crop  where  the  rainfall  is  only  10 
to  14  inches. 

Other  advantages  over  kafir  are  its  earlier  maturity  and  its 
freedom  from  attack  by  kernel  smut.  The  disadvantages  of  milo 
as  compared  with  kafir  are:  (1)  the  leaves  are  fewer  and  the 
stems  more  pithy;  (2)  the  fact  that  the  leaves  of  milo  do  not 
keep  perfectly  green  up  to  the  time  of  the  ripening  of  seed, 
making  its  forage  less  palatable. 

The  methods  of  planting,  cultivating,  and  harvesting  milo  are 
the  same  as  for  kafir.  In  experiments  made  in  the  northwestern 
part  of  Texas,  a  distance  of  6  inches  between  plants  in  the  row 
afforded  the  largest  yield  of  seed. 

Selection  has  resulted  in  a  dwarf  variety  and  also  in  strains 
having  erect  heads,  thus  making  harvesting  easier  than  with  the 
pendant  heads,  usual  in  the  plants  of  milo. 

BROOM-CORN 

223.  Description.  —  Broom-corn  is  a  tall,  nonsaccharine 
sorghum.  It  is  distinguished  from  other  sorghums  by  the 
great  length  and  toughness  of  the  branches  that  make  up 
the  panicle  (Fig.  120).  The  valuable  part  of  broom-corn 
consists  of  these  long  heads  after  the  removal  of  the  im- 
mature seed ;  this  useful  part  is  called  the  "  brush,"  and 
from  it  brooms  and  various  kinds  of  brushes  are  made. 

A  fair  yield  of  cured  and  prepared  brush  of  the  standard  varie- 
ties is  about  one  third  of  a  ton  per  acre.  The  dwarf  varieties 
ordinarily  yield  about  one  fifth  of  a  ton  of  brush  per  acre,  but 
this  dwarf  brush  commands  a  higher  price.  The  price  of  broom- 
corn  is  subject  to  violent  fluctuations ;  eighty  dollars  per  ton  of 
brush  may  be  taken  as  an  average,  but  the  price  sometimes  sinks 
below  this  and  sometimes  rises  to  about  double  this  figure.  The 
fluctuations  in  price  are  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  only  a  rela- 
tively small  area  (usually  less  than  40,000  acres  and  some  years 
less  than  20,000  acres)  is  required  to  furnish  the  entire  American 
R 


242 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


crop  of  broom-corn.     Therefore  an  increase  of  a  few  thousand 
acres  greatly  depresses  prices.     The  chief  centers  of  production 

are  certain  districts  in  Illinois, 
Kansas,  and  Oklahoma. 

Nashville,  Tennessee,  is  proba- 
bly the  most  important  southern 
market  for  broom-corn  brush. 
If  the  crop  is  grown  on  farms 
in  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
States,  growers  should  aim  rather 
to  supply  local  broom  factories 
than  to  compete'  on  the  larger 
markets  with  localities  in  which 
broom-corn  culture  is  a  long- 
established  industry. 

224.    Types  of  broom-corn. 

-  The  varieties  of  broom- 
corn  may  be  divided  into  two 
types  or  classes  —  standard 
and  dwarf  varieties.  Stand- 
ard broom-corn  is  a  tall  plant 
with  brush  18  to  24  inches 
long.  Dwarf  broom-corn  usu- 
ally stands  only  4  to  6  feet 
high  and  bears  brush  that  is 

FIG.  120.  — BROOM-CORN  BRUSH.  10  to  18  inches  long.  From 
On  left,  before  removal  of  seed ;  the  latter  are  made  whisk 

and  on  right,  after  stripping.  brooms,  hearth  brooms,  and 

brushes.     The  Dwarf  varieties  are  considered  to  be  espe- 
cially suited  to  Oklahoma  and  Kansas. 

225.  Climate,  soils,  and  fertilizers.  —  While  the  broom- 
corn  plant  can  be  grown  under  a  wide  range  of  climatic 
and  soil  conditions,  yet  it  is  most  profitable  in  a  climate 


THE  SORGHUMS  24 3 

where  there  is  but  little  rain  at  the  time  of  harvest.  Harvest 
occurs  about  the  same  time  as  with  other  kinds  of  sorghum  ; 
that  is,  in  August  and  September.  In  the  southeastern 
part  of  the  United  States  the  weather  is  more  apt  to  be  dry 
in  September  and  October  than  in  August ;  hence  it  is  well 
to  postpone  the  date  of  planting  late  enough  into  May  or 
June  to  bring  the  harvesting  season  in  September,  rather 
than  earlier. 

Rain  just  before  or  at  harvest  time  is  likely  to  cause  plant- 
lice  to  attack  the  plants  and  to  discolor  the  brush,  which, 
in  order  to  command  the  highest  price,  should  be  of  a  green 
color. 

Any  land  on  which  a  good  yield  of  corn  is  ordinarily 
made  is  suitable  for  broom-corn. 

The  same  fertilization  as  for  corn,  or  for  sorghum  grown 
for  sirup,  is  advisable.  The  soil  should  be  fertile  enough 
and  the  fertilizer  rich  enough  in  nitrogen  to  insure  a  tall  and 
rapid  growth,  which  is  favorable  to  length  of  brush. 

226.  Culture.  —  If  seed  is  to  be  saved,  broom-corn  should 
be  planted  in  a  field  remote  from  any  other  kind  of  sorghum, 
as  all  kinds  of  sorghum  readily  hybridize,  or  mix.  For  this 
and  for  other  reasons,  one  should  plant  seed  only  from  se- 
lected plants,  grown  in  a  seed  patch  where  no  mixing  could 
have  occurred  and  from  wrhich  all  poor  heads  were  removed 
before  the  pollen  was  ready  to  be  shed. 

Planting  in  Oklahoma  is  done  chiefly  in  May.  Broom- 
corn  may  be  planted  earlier  in  the  southern  portion  of  the 
cotton-belt ;  but  here  it  is  probably  well  to  delay  planting 
late  into  May  or  even  later,  so  as  to  bring  the  harvest  season 
in  September  when  there  is  a  greater  probability  of  dry 
weather  than  there  is  in  August. 


244  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

The  seed  should  be  planted  in  well-prepared  land  in 
rows  about  3^  feet  apart,  one  plant  standing  every  3  or  4 
inches  on  rich  land  or  at  double  this  distance  on  poor  land. 
Cultivation  is  somewhat  more  conveniently  performed  if 
the  plants  are  left,  3  to  6  in  a  hill,  at  distances  of  about 
16  inches  apart  for  standard  kinds,  or  at  shorter  intervals 
for  dwarf  varieties. 

For  planting  on  a  seed-bed  in  perfect  condition  with  the 
expectation  of  not  thinning  the  plants,  2  quarts  of  good 
seed  is  sufficient  for  an  acre.  With  land  less  perfectly  pre- 
pared or  where  thinning  is  necessary,  at  least  double  this 
amount  of  seed  is  sometimes  used. 

Tillage  is  similar  to  that  given  to  corn,  or  to  sorghum 
grown  for  sirup. 

227.  Harvesting  and  preparation  for  market.  —  Har- 
vesting of  the  brush  occurs  before  the  seeds  form;  that 
is,  when  the  anthers  are  falling.  The  heads  of  the  dwarf 
plants  are  pulled  instead  of  being  cut.  Standard  vari- 
eties must  first  be  bent  down  or  "  tabled."  This  is 
done  by  bending  down,  about  3  feet  above  the  ground, 
the  stalks  on  two  rows.  These  bent  plants  are  brought 
together  diagonally  in  a  horizontal  position,  the  brush 
of  one  row  extending  beyond  the  upright  portion  of 
the  stalks  on  the  adjacent  row.  The  brush  is  then 
cut  with  a  sharp  knife  at  a  distance  of  about  8  inches 
below  the  head.  It  is  laid,  for  partial  drying,  on 
the  tables  made  by  the  bending  together  of  two  rows 
of  stalks. 

After  sorting  the  heads  to  separate  all  crooked  and  un- 
marketable brush,  the  immature  seeds  are  removed  by 
scraping  or  threshing  on  a  special  kind  of  thresher,  the 


THE  SORGHUMS  245 

brush  not  passing  through  the  machine,  but  being  held 
against  the  revolving  cylinders. 

Drying  is  done  rapidly  in  the  shade  of  special  sheds  and 
away  from  strong  light,  so  as  to  retain  the  green  color.  In 
a  shed  for  curing  broom-corn,  the  layers  of  threshed  brush 
are  only  2  or  3  inches  thick  on  flat  supports,  so  as  to  insure 
ample  ventilation  and  quick  curing. 

After  curing,  the  brush  is  packed  into  bales  weighing 
from  300  to  4QO  pounds. 

228.  Enemies.  —  The  principal  insect  enemies  are  plant- 
lice  and  chinch-bugs.  Sorghum  smut  is  the  most  serious 
fungous  disease.  This  is  carried  through  the  seed  and  can 
be  prevented  by  soaking  the  seed  for  fifteen  minutes  in 
water  kept  at  a  temperature  of  135°  F. 

LABORATORY   EXERCISES 

(1)  Write  a  description  of  each  class  and  variety  of  sorghum 
of  which  specimens  can  be  obtained,  noting  especially  the  follow- 
ing:— 

(a)  Color  of  naked  seed  ; 
(6)  Color  and  size  of  chaff ; 

(c)  Whether  seed  is  almost  completely  covered  by  chaff, 
or  projects  slightly,  or  is  largely  uncovered. 

(2)  Write  a  description  of  the  heads  of  each  class  and  variety  of 
sorghum  of  which  specimens  can  be  obtained,  noting  especially 
the  following :  — 

(c)  Compactness  of  head  ; 

(6)  Shape  of  head,  —  oval,  cylindrical,  roundish,  fan- 
shaped,  or  irregular,  —  illustrating  the  shape  by 
drawing  the  outlines  of  each  head ; 

(c)  Length  of  head  in  inches. 


246  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CHOPS 

(3)  If  a  field  of  any  class  or  variety  of  sorghum  can  be  in- 
spected, make  record  of  the  following :  — 

(a)  The  apparent  impurity,  or  percentage  of  plants  which 
seem  to  belong  in  a  different  class  or  variety  ; 

(5)  Effects  on  the  size  of  heads  and  size  of  stalk  due  to  wide 
or  close  spacing  of  plants. 

(4)  If  a  field  of  kafir  or  milo  can  be  inspected,  note  whether 
there  is  uniformity  in  the  height  of  plants  and  time  of  ripening.     If 
not,  does  this  diversity  interfere  with  the  local  method  of  harvest- 
ing the  seed  ? 

(5)  If  fields  of  saccharine  sorghum  are  available,  cut  short 
sections  of  the  same  row  when  the  plants  are  at  different  heights, 
or  stages  of  maturity  ;    record  the  weights  and  condition  when 
cut,  and  a  month  or  two  after  each  cutting,  note  the  effects  of 
cutting  at  different  stages  on  the  height  of  the  second  growth. 

LITERATURE 
Saccharine  sorghums. 

BALL,  C.  R.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmer's  Bui.  No.  246 ;    Circ. 

50. 
NEWMAN,  J.  S.,  and  others.     Sorghum  as  a  Sirup  Plant.     S.  C. 

Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  88. 

Nonsaccharine  sorghums  —  kafir  and  milo. 

WARBURTON,    C.   W.     The    Nonsaccharine    Sorghums.     U.    S. 

Dept.  Agr.,  Farmer's  Bui.  No.  288. 
CONNER,    A.    B.     Forage    Crops    in    Northwest    Texas.     Tex. 

Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  103. 
BALL,  C.  R.,  and  LEIDIGH,  A.  H.    Milo  as  a  Dry-land  Grain 

Crop.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmer's  Bui.  No.  322. 
FREEMAN,   E.  M.,   and    UMBERGER,  H.  J.  C.     The    Smuts   of 

Sorghum.    U.    S.    Dept.   Agr.,   Bureau  Plant    Ind.,   Circ. 

No.  8. 
ROBERTS,  H.  F.,  and  FREEMAN,  C.  F.      Prevention  of  Sorghum 

and  Kafir  Corn  Smut.     Kan.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  149. 


THE  SORGHUMS  247 

COBURN,    F.    D.     The    Sorghums.     Kan.  Bd.    Agr.,  Rpt.    1st. 

Quarter,  1896. 
HUNT,  T.  F.     The  Cereals  in  America,  pp.  383-399.     1904,  New 

York. 
BALL,   C.   R.,  and   WARBURTON,  C.  S.      Bailey's    Cyclo.   Agr., 

Vol.  II,  pp.  574-582. 

Broom-corn. 
HARTLEY,  C.  P.    Broom-corn.    U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmer's  Bui. 

No.  174. 

NEWMAN,  C.  L.     Broom-corn.     Ark.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  83. 
DODSON,  W.  R.    Broom-corn.     La.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  67. 
WARBURTON,  C.   W.    Bailey's   Cyclo.  Agr.,   Vol.    II,   pp.   216- 

217. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

COTTON  — STRUCTURE  AND   GENERAL 
CHARACTERISTICS 

COTTON  is  the  world's  most  important  fiber  plant.  The 
cotton  plant  as  generally  grown  in  the  United  States  is 
of  erect  or  bushy  form  and  usually  three  to  seven  feet  tall. 
In  this  country  it  is  an  annual,  being  killed  by  frost  in  the 
fall.  In  its  native  home  in  the  tropics  the  cotton  plant  is 
a  perennial,  living  for  many  years.  Suggestions  of  this 
perennial  habit  are  afforded  after  a  mild  winter  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  cotton-belt  by  the  sprouting  of  plants 
from  the  old  root  or  stem. 

229.  Stems  and  branches.  —  The  cotton  plant  consists 
of  an  erect  central  stem,  usually  three  to  six  feet  long,  from 
the  nodes  of  which  branches  arise.  Stems  and  branches 
are  woody  and  solid.  The  length  and  arrangement  of 
branches  are  important  as  means  of  distinguishing  varieties 
and  as  indications  of  productiveness  and  earliness. 

The  longest  limbs  of  cotton  are  usually  near  the  base  of 
the  plant,  the  length  decreasing  towards  the  top  of  the 
main  stem.  This  gives  to  cotton  plants  of  most  varieties 
a  cone-shaped,  pyramidal,  or  sugar-loaf  form.  However, 
in  varieties,  known  as  "  cluster  cottons,"  there  are  a  few 
long  limbs  near  the  base  of  the  plant;  all  branches  above 
these  basal  limbs  are  only  a  few  inches  long,  thus  giving  a 
slender  or  "  erect  "  appearance  to  the  upper  two  thirds  of 

248 


COTTON  STRUCTURE 


249 


FIG.  121.  —  A  VEGETATIVE  BRANCH 
FROM  NEAR  THE  BASE  OF  A  COTTON 
PLANT. 

Showing  that  the  boll-stems  are  not 
borne  directly  on  the  vegetative  branch, 
but  on  secondary  branches  springing 
from  it. 


the  plant.  Between  cluster  cotton  and  wide-spreading, 
long-limb  kinds  there  are  all  gradations  in  length  of 
branches. 

Each  branch  arises  from  the  main  stem  in  the  angle  be- 


250  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

tween  a  leaf  and  the  main  stem.  Usually  this  leaf  on  the 
main  stem  falls  before  the  branch  attains  much  size,  but 
its  position  is  shown  by  the  leaf -scar. 

The  plant  has  two  classes  of  branches  or  limbs.  The 
longer,  ascending  ones  (Fig.  121)  are  sometimes  called 
vegetative  or  primary  branches,  while  slenderer  or  shorter 
branches  on  which  bolls  are  attached  directly  by  their 
flower  stalks  or  boll-stems  (peduncles)  are  called  "  fruiting 
limbs"  (Fig.  122).  The  primary  branches  have  also  been 


FIG.  122.  —  A  FRUITING  BRANCH. 
Showing  that  the  boll-stems  are  borne  directly  on  the  branch. 

called  sterile  limbs ;  this  is  because  no  boll-stem  or  boll  is 
borne  directly  on  these  vegetative  limbs,  though  boll-stems, 
with  attached  bolls,  spring  from  the  subdivisions  of  these 
main  branches. 

In  general,  a  primary  branch  supports  numerous  leaves, 
and,  on  its  sub-branches,  some  bolls;  while  a  fruiting 
limb  usually  bears  several  bolls  and  but  few  leaves. 

Normally,  two  branches  arise  from  the  axil  of  a  leaf  on 
the  main  stem  (Fig.  123).  One  of  these  twin  branches, 
arising  from  the  same  node  of  the  main  stem,  is  a  fruiting 


COTTON    STRUCTURE  251 


FIG.  123.  —  A  COTTON  PLANT. 

Showing  the  growth  of  two  branches  from  each  of  certain  nodes  on 
the  main  stem. 


252 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


FIG.  124.  —  COTTON  PLANT  ON  WHICH  THE  VEGETATIVE  BRANCH  is 
SUPPRESSED  AT  EVERY  NODE  EXCEPT  WHERE  THE  TWO  LOWEST 
(VEGETATIVE)  BRANCHES  ORIGINATE. 

branch,  and  the  other  a  vegetative  or  so-called  sterile 
branch.  At  many  of  the  nodes  one  or  the  other  of  these 
branches  fails  to  develop  conspicuously,  and  is  represented 
merely  by  a  tiny  shoot  or  bud  (Fig.  124.)  If  a  vegeta- 


COTTON    STRUCTURE 


253 


FIG.  125.  —  A  COTTON  PLANT  HAVING  ONLY  FRUITING  LIMBS. 

tive  limb  develops  at  nearly  every  node,  the  plant  presents 
a  very  bushy,  round-topped,  leafy  appearance,  and  the 
bolls  may  be  relatively  few  and  too  much  shaded. 

It  is  probable  that  the  yield  will  be  increased  by  selecting 
seed  from  plants  on  which  a  large  proportion  of  the  fruit 
limbs  develop  fully,  and  on  which  there  are  relatively  few 
fully  developed  vegetative  branches  (Fig.  125). 


254  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

On  the  main  stem  of  some  plants  the  fruit  limb  is  invari- 
ably on  the  left  side  of  the  sterile  limb,  while  on  other  plants, 
the  fruit  limb  is  uniformly  on  the  right  side  of  its  twin 
vegetative  branch. 

230.  Maturity   or   earliness.  —  It    has   been  found  by 
Bennett  that  those  cotton  plants  are  earliest  in  maturity 
(as  judged  by  the  time  when  their  bolls  are  formed)  that 
are  short-jointed  and  that  throw  out  their  lowest  limbs 
from  nodes  very  near  the  ground.     For  earliness  and  pro- 
ductiveness there  should  be  numerous  nodes  on  the  main 
stem,  —  that  is,  points  from  which  branches  spring,  —  and 
these  should  be  close  together.     Likewise  on  the  limbs,  the 
distance  between  bolls  or  secondary  branches  should  be 
short,  especially  where  earliness  is  important. 

231.  Bark  and  stem.  —  The  bark  of  the  cotton  plant  is 
fairly  strong  and  tough.     To  a  limited  extent  cotton  bark 
has  been  used  as  a  coarse  fiber,  once  proposed  as  a  cover- 
ing for  cotton  bales,  and  in  the  making  of  paper. 

The  woody  stem  inside  the  bark  is  weak  and  brittle,  so  that 
after  the  plants  are  killed  by  frost  the  stalks  can  readily  be  broken 
or  cut,  and  after  being  plowed  under,  they  rot  more  rapidly  than 
do  corn-stalks  similarly  treated. 

The  color  of  the  bark  of  the  nearly  mature  plant  is  usually 
reddish  brown,  but  the  shade  varies  on  different  sides  of  the  same 
stem  and  in  different  varieties  and  individuals.  Some  plants 
have  a  dark  greenish  bark.  Such  plants  tend  to  drop  their  leaves 
early  and  to  mature  early. 

232.  Roots.  —  The    cotton   plant   is   supplied   with    a 
tap-root,  or  continuation  of  the  stem,  from  which  the  lateral 
roots  branch.     In  deep,  well-drained  soil,  the  tap-root  may 
go  deep  into  the  ground,  but  on  shallow  soil  or  on  that  in- 


COTTON    STRUCTURE  255 

sufficiently  drained,  the  tap-root  often  turns  and  grows 
in  a  horizontal  direction  on  coming  into  contact  with  a 
dense  or  undrained  subsoil. 

Most  of  the  lateral  roots  arise  at  points  two  to  four 
inches  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Hence,  deep 
cultivation  after  the  plant  is  several  inches  high  results  in 
the  destruction  of  many  of  the  lateral  roots. 

233.  Leaves.  —  The  leaves  of  cotton,  are  alternate  in 
position  on  the  stem  or  branch.     They  vary  somewhat  in 
size  and  shape,  even  on  the  same  plant.     In  American 
varieties,  both  of  the  short-staple  and  long-staple  upland 
classes,  the  leaves  are  usually 

three-lobed,  sometimes  five- 
lobed.  In  these  classes  the 
spaces  between  lobes  are  usually 
shallow.  Certain  groups  of  vari- 
eties,  chiefly  the  big-boll  kinds,  FlG'  126— CoTTON  LEAVES' 

.    .         I  ,  . , ,  • ,  a,  upland ;  6,  Sea  Island. 

have   large    leaves    with   quite 

shallow  indentation,  and  short,  broad  lobes.  Other  groups, 
notably  those  of  the  King  and  Peterkin  types,  have  smaller 
leaves  with  slenderer,  more  sharply  pointed  lobes.  Between 
these  groups  are  all  gradations  in  size  and  shape  of  leaves. 
In  Sea  Island  cotton  the  lobes  are  very  slender  and  the 
indentations  very  deep  (Fig.  126) . 

There  are  usually  three  (sometimes  more)  prominent 
veins  or  ribs  in  each  leaf.  On  one  or  more  of  these  on  the 
under  side  of  the  leaf  are  glands  that  may  easily  be  seen. 
The  leaves  of  upland  cotton  are  covered,  especially  on  the 
lower  side,  with  numerous  short,  inconspicuous  hairs. 

234.  Boll  stems,  or  peduncles.  —  Connecting  the  flower 
or  boll  with  the  branch  is  a  short  flower-stem  (Figs.  121  and 


256  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 

122),  ranging  in  American  upland  and  long-staple  upland 
varieties  from  one  half  an  inch  to  about  two  inches  in 
length.  This  varies  somewhat  with  the  variety,  but  varies 
still  more  in  different  parts  of  the  same  plant. 

The  boll  stem  should  be  of  such  length  and  diameter  as  will 
prevent  its  bending  abruptly,  thus  preventing  the  most  complete 
development  of  the  boll. 

It  would  probably  be  an  advantage  if  the  boll-stem  should 
be  of  sufficient  length  and  strength  to  cause  the  boll  to  hang  with 
its  tip  downward,  so  that  the  leafy  bracts  might  act  against  rain  as 
a  roof,  thus  increasing  the  "  storm  resistance"  of  the  seed  cotton. 
This,  however,  has  not  been  proved ;  for  increased  length  may 
lead  to  a  greater  amount  of  breaking  of  boll-stems,  rather  than  to 
a  normal  drooping  of  the  boll.  It  should  be  added  that  the 
abrupt  bending  of  the  boll-stem  is  often  due  to  a  specific  disease, 
"  black  arm." 

235.  Flowers.  —  The  three  green  parts,  which  together 
make  the  "  square/'  are  bracts  or  flower  leaves,  and  serve 
to  protect  the  flower  bud.  The  blooms  are  large  and  pretty, 
their  size  and  color  varying  in  different  species. 

In  American  upland  and  long-staple  upland,  the  bloom 
is  a  pale  cream  color  on  the  morning  that  it  opens.  On  the 
second  day  it  changes  to  a  pink  or  red  and  later  falls.  The 
flowers  open  early  in  the  morning  and  close  late  in  the  same 
day.  In  Sea  Island  cotton,  the  young  bloom  has  a  more 
yellowish  tint  than  the  flower  of  upland  cotton. 

The  pollen  is  heavy  and  waxy,  and  apparently  it  is 
carried  almost  entirely  by  insects.  However,  cotton  is 
capable  of  self-fertilization,  as  shown  by  the  fact  that  if  a 
hundred  flower  buds  be  inclosed  by  paper  bags,  bolls  con- 
taining seed  will  develop  in  most  cases.  It  is  probable  that 
cross-fertilization  tends  to  increased  vigor.  At  least  the 


COTTON    STRUCTURE  257 

seed  from  artificial  hybrids  between  upland  American  vari- 
eties have  been  found  to  be  larger  than  the  average  of  the 
seeds  of  the  parent  varieties.  (Ala.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  56.) 

There  are  five  conspicuous  petals  and  five  inconspicuous 
sepals,  the  latter  united  into  a  shallow  cup  around  the  base 
of  the  flower  and  boll.  The  pistil,  or  central  part  of  the 
flower,  is  divided  into  from  3  to  6  divisions  or  stigmas. 
Three  is  the  prevailing  number  of  stigmas  in  Sea  Island 
cotton  and  four  or  five  in  American  upland  varieties.  The 
number  is  the  same  as  the  number  of  locks  of  seed  cotton 
that  will  develop  in  that  particular  boll.  The  stamens  are 
numerous  and  are  grouped  closely  around  the  pistil  just 
below  the  stigmas. 

The  pollen  is  released  from  the  pollen-cases  (anthers) 
several  hours  after  sunrise,  or  about  the  same  time  that  the 
stigma  is  in  condition  to  receive  it. 

Two  varieties  of  cotton  readily  cross  by  the  carrying  of 
pollen  by  insects  from  one  flower  to  another.  Webber  has 
estimated  that  only  about  5  to  10  per  cent  of  the  seed  from 
two  varieties  grown  near  together  produce  hybrid,  or 
crossed,  plants. 

Glands.  —  Glands,  or  minute  organs  secreting  a  sweetish  sub- 
stance, are  found  both  on  the  flowers  and  leaves  of  cotton.  In 
the  flowers  of  American  cottons  there  are  glands  at  the  base  of 
the  bracts  and  also  at  the  base  of  the  petals.  On  the  under  side  of 
the  leaves  the  glands  occur  on  one  or  more  of  the  mid-ribs  or  veins. 
The  glands  are  probably  means  of  attracting  insect  visitors  and 
thus  of  increasing  the  amount  of  crossing  between  varieties  or 
between  individual  plants  of  cotton. 

236.  Bolls  (Fig.  127).—  ,The  pod  containing  the  seed 
and  lint  is  called  the  boll.  In  short-staple  cotton,  there 


258 


COTTON    STRUCTURE  259 

are  usually  four  or  five  divisions  of  each  boll ;  the  content 
of  each  division  is  called  a  lock.  While  upland  American 
cottons,  both  long-  and  short-staple,  have  usually  four  or 
five  locks,  a  boll  of  Sea  Island  cotton  contains  only  three 
or  four. 

In  tests  made  at  the  Alabama  Experiment  Station, 
bolls  with  five  locks  afforded  a  larger  yield  of  seed  cotton 
to  the  boll  than  did  bolls  having  only  four  locks. 

The  number  of  bolls  varies  somewhat  with  different 
varieties,  but  is  chiefly  dependent  upon  conditions  of  fer- 
tility, rainfall,  and  climate.  The  number  may  vary  be- 
tween a  few  and  several  hundred  on  a  single  plant.  A 
field  averaging  50  mature  bolls  per  plant  usually  makes 
considerably  more  than  a  bale  of  cotton  (500  pounds  of 
lint)  per  acre.  Cotton  plants  of  medium  size,  3  to  5  feet 
high,  are  apt  to  be  more  heavily  fruited  in  proportion  to 
size  than  very  large  plants.  Short  internodes,  or  spaces 
between  branches,  are  favorable  to  productiveness.  An 
ideal  cotton  plant  should  have  a  number  of  nearly  hori- 
zontal fruiting  limbs,  beginning  near  the  ground,  and 
continuing  to  arise  at  each  node  until  considerably  above 
the  middle  of  the  plant.  Each  fruiting  limb  on  the  lower 
part  of  productive  plants  should  mature  at  least  four 
bolls. 

Cotton  bolls  of  the  Sea  Island  varieties  are  usually  less  than 
one  inch  in  diameter,  and  of  slender,  tapering  shape.  Bolls  of 
American  upland  cotton  vary  greatly  in  size  and  shape  according 
to  variety,  and  the  character  of  soil  and  season.  The  diameter 
usually  varies  between  1J  and  2  inches,  and  in  most  cases  the 
bolls  are  considerably  longer  than  thick.  Rich  land  and  high 
fertilization,  together  with  abundance  of  moisture*  tend  to  in- 
crease the  size  of  bolls. 


260 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


FIG.  128.  —  A  COTTON  PLANT  DEFICIENT  IN  STORM  RESISTANCE. 

Bolls  of  upland  cotton  are  usually  of  such  size  that  from  40  to 
110  are  required  to  make  a  pound  of  seed  cotton. 

When  the  boll  ripens,  it  splits  usually  into  four  or  five  divisions, 
exposing  the  seed  cotton.  The  parts  of  the  pod,  or  bur,  separate 
more  or  less  completely.  If  they  open  wide  and  the  outer  walls 
of  the  burs  curl  backward,  the  seed  cotton  may  be  held  so 
slightly  that  it  is  easily  blown  out  by  wind  or  beaten  out  by  rain 
(Fig.  128). 


COTTON    STRUCTURE 


261 


237.  Storm  resist- 
ance. —  The  struc- 
ture of  boll  most 
favorable  to  "  storm 
resistance,"  or  per- 
sistence of  the  seed 
cotton  in  the  bur,  is 
the  following :  — 

(1)  A  firm  stiff  wall, 
which  on  drying  does 
not    curl   backward, 
but  serves  to  support 
and  protect  the  seed 
cotton  (Fig.  129). 

(2)  Sufficient  sepa- 
ration of  the  parts  of 
the  bur  to  make  pick- 
ing   easy,    but    not 
enough     to     permit 
each    lock   to    hang 
separately. 

FIG.  129.  —  STORM-RESIST- 
ANT BOLL  AND  BURS 
ABOVE  ;  BELOW,  BOLLS 

AND         BURS        LACKING 

STORM  RESISTANCE. 

Below,  the  wallsof  the  bur 
are  rolled  back,  permitting 
the  locks  of  seed  cotton  to 
separate  and  fall  back- 
ward ;  above,  the  walls  of 
the  bur  do  not  curve  back- 
ward, but  support  the  seed 
cotton  in  a  compact  mass. 


262  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

(3)  A  drooping  position  of  the  boll,  which  is  partly  de- 
pendent upon  the  weight  of  the  boll,  partly  on  the  length 
and  stiffness  of  the  boll-stem,  and  partly  on  the  position  of 
the  cotton  plant;    that  is,  whether  standing  erect  or  bent 
down  by  the  weight  of  bolls. 

(4)  The  presence  of  large  bracts,  or  leafy  parts  of  the 
square,  which  may  serve  to  shed  some  of  the  water  and 
thus  to  prevent  the  complete  saturation  of  bolls,  and 
dropping  of  seed  cotton  from  bolls  borne  in  a  drooping 
position.  .-. 

238.  Lint.  —  Each  cotton  fiber  consists  of  a  single 
elongated  cell.  The  fiber  may  be  thought  of  as  a  tube, 
which,  while  immature,  is  cylindrical  throughout  more  than 
three  fourths  of  its  length;  thence  it  tapers  to  the  end 
farthest  from  the  seed.  But  as  the  fiber  matures,  the  tube 
collapses  and  becomes  twisted,  somewhat  like  a  collapsed 
and  twisted  fire-hose.  This  twisting,  which  is  most  com- 
plete when  the  fiber  is  thoroughly  matured,  is  highly  de- 
sirable because  it  adds  strength  to  the  cotton  thread  or  yarn 
by  causing  the  fibers  to  cling  together  when  twisted.  The 
advantage  of  the  twisting  in  preventing  the  slipping  of 
fibers  in  a  thread  or  cloth  may  be  understood  by  considering 
how  much  more  difficult  it  would  be  for  two  chains  twisted 
together  to  slip  past  each  other  than  it  would  be  for  two 
pieces  of  smooth  wire. 

Based  chiefly  on  the  amount  of  twisting,  there  are  in 
every  lot  of  cotton  three  kinds  of  fibers:  (1)  ripe,  (2)  partly 
ripe,  and  (3)  immature.  In  immature  fibers  there  is  little 
twist;  consequently  these  make  weak  thread  or  cloth. 
Moreover  immature  fibers  do  not  uniformly  and  satisfac- 
torily absorb  the  dyes  used  in  the  manufacture  of  colored 


COTTON    STRUCTURE  263 

cloth.  Therefore,  to  secure  the  best  grade  and  price,  bolls 
of  cotton  should  not  be  picked  until  well  opened,  thus 
giving  an  opportunity  for  sun  and  air  to  mature  the  fiber. 
The  value  of  cotton  fiber  is  determined  by  (1)  length,  (2) 
strength,  (3)  maturity,  (4)  fineness,  and  (5)  uniformity. 
The  longest  fiber  is  usually  the  finest,  and  such  fibers  may 
be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  finest,  thinnest,  and  most 
expensive  cotton  fabrics. 

The  following  are  approximately  average  lengths  of  the  fibers 
of  the  principal  kinds  of  cotton  :  — 

Sea  Island,  1.61  inches  ; 
Egyptian,  1.41  inches  ; 
American  upland,  0.93  inches  ; 
American  long-staple,  1.3  inches. 

The  fiber  is  longest  on  the  larger  or  upper  end  of  the  seed. 

The  average  diameter  of  American  upland  short-staple  cotton 
is  TsW  to  yjsVff  inch.  The  cotton  fiber  attains  its  maximum  length 
before  reaching  its  maximum  diameter  and  strength. 

Williams  (N.  C.  Bd.  Agr.,  Bui.  Sept.,  1906)  found  that  in  12 
varieties  of  cotton,  the  average  weight  required  to  break  a  single 
fiber  was  6.83  grams.  Hilgard  found  the  extremes  of  breaking 
strength  of  cotton  to  be  4  and  14  grams.  Cotton  is  about  three 
times  as  strong  as  wool  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  fiber.  In  a 
pound  of  Russell  cotton  there  were  calculated  to  be  more  than 
15,000,000  fibers,  which,  if  placed  end  to  end,  would  make  a  line 
about  2000  miles  long.  Cotton  fiber  is  prevented  from  readily 
absorbing  moisture  by  an  oily  covering  of  each  fiber,  which  is 
said  by  Monil  to  make  up  about  2  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the 
fiber.  Absorbent  cotton  represents  cotton  from  which  this  oily 
protection  has  been  removed  by  treatment  with  chemicals.  The 
oily  covering  must  be  removed  before  the  yarn  can  be  dyed. 

It  is  thought  by  farmers  that  if  seed  cotton  be  stored  for  some 
time  before  ginning,  the  proportion  of  lint  will  increase  and  that 
it  will  then  make  a  better-looking  sample.  If  this  be  true,  there 


264  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

is  need  for  investigators  to  determine  whether  there  is  an  increase 
in  the  weight  of  this  oily  covering  during  storage. 

239.  Seed.  —  There  are  usually  6  to  12  seeds  in  each 
lock  of  seed  cotton,  or  from  28  to  50  seeds  in  a  boll.  In 
varieties  with  small  seed,  the  number  per  boll  is  usually 
greater  than  in  varieties  having  large  seed. 

The  legal  weight  of  a  bushel  of  seed  is  usually  either  32 
or  33^  pounds.  A  bushel  may  be  regarded  as  containing 
about  135,000  seeds  of  average  size. 

A  bushel  of  Sea  Island  cotton  seed  is  usually  assumed  to  weigh 
about  44  pounds.  In  the  author's  classification,  upland  cotton 
seed,  averaging  13  grams  per  100  seed,  are  considered  as  large; 
those  weighing  10  to  13  grams  per  100  seed  as  medium ;  and  those 
weighing  less  than  10  grams  per  100  seed  as  small. 

The  seed  of  most  varieties  of  upland  cotton  are  covered  with 
a  short,  dense  fuzz  which  may  be  white,  greenish,  or  brownish. 
There  are  some  exceptional  varieties  almost  free  from  this  fuzz  or 
so  thinly  covered  that  the  black  seed-coat  shows  through.  Sea 
Island  cotton  has  naked  black  seeds,  free  from  fuzz  except  on  the 
tip  end  of  some  of  them.  Constant  selection  is  necessary  to  pre- 
vent an  increase  in  the  fuzz  on  Sea  Island  cotton  seed. 

Within  the  tough  hull  of  the  seed  is  the  "meat,"  which  con- 
sists chiefly  of  two  fleshy  seed  leaves  (cotyledons)  enfolding  the 
embryo  sprout  and  the  embryo  root. 

In  the  entire  seed  the  following  figures  represent  approximately 
the  usual  proportions  of  the  different  parts :  — 

Linters,  or  short  lint,  removed  at  the  oil  mill  .     .     .     10  per  cent 

Hulls 40  per  cent 

Meats 50  per  cent 

Germination.  —  When  planted  in  the  field  in  the  spring  under 
favorable  weather  conditions,  germination  usually  occurs  in  seven 
to  twelve  days.  Cotton  seeds  retain  their  power  to  germinate  for 
several  years.  The  seed  leaves,  or  first  two  thick  leaves  that 


COTTON    STRUCTURE  265 

appear,  serve  to  nourish  the  plant  before  the  appearance  of  true 
leaves. 

240.  Stages  in  the  life  of  flower  and  fruit.  —  When  the 
plant  is  about  40  days  old,  the  first  squares  or  flower  buds 
may  usually  be  seen.  If  planting  is  done  in  hot  weather, 
the  squares  mature  more  quickly.  Mercier  reports  that 
21  days  is  the  time  from  the  first  appearance  of  the  square 
to  the  opening  of  the  bloom.  From  the  open  bloom  to  the 
open  boll  the  time  varies  according  to  the  season  of  year 
and  the  variety.  As  a  rule  in  very  hot  weather,  42  days  is 
sufficient;  while  in  the  cooler  weather  of  the  early  fall,  50  or 
more  days  may  be  required.  Therefore,  blooms  appearing 
50  days  before  the  average  date  of  frost  in  a  given  locality 
may  be  expected,  under  average  weather  conditions,  to 
mature. 

LABORATORY   EXERCISES 

(1)  Tie  a  string  to  the  lowest  branch  of  a  well-grown  cotton 
plant  and  wind  it  spirally  around  the  plant,  in  such  a  way  as  to 
touch  the  base  of  each  branch.     By  repeating  this  on  several 
plants  determine  the  number  of  the  branch  from  the  bottom  that 
is  directly  above  the  lowest  branch. 

(2)  Make  a  record  of  how  many  times  the  string  passes  en- 
tirely around  the  stem  in  being  wound  spirally  from  the  lowest 
branch  to  the  one  directly  over  it. 

(3)  Compare,  as  to  earliness  of  maturing,  several  plants  with 
long  internodes  on  main  stem  and  branches  with  others  of  the 
same  variety  having  short  intervals  between  limbs  or  leaves. 

(4)  Weigh  the  mass  of  seed  cotton  from  50  bolls  each  having 
5  locks,  and  that  from  50  4-lock  bolls ;   record  and  compare  the 
weights. 

(5)  Find  5  storm-resistant  bolls  or  old  burs,  and  write  down  the 
apparent  reasons  for  the  storm  resistance  of  each. 

(6)  Pull  and  break  a  small  number  of  fibers  of  immature  but 


266  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

dry  lint  and  note  how  much  less  force  is  required  to  break  these 
than  to  break  fully  matured  cotton  fibers. 

LITERATURE 

MELL,  P.  H.     Ala.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  13. 

WILLIAMS,  C.  B.     N.  C.  Bd.  Agr.,  Bui.  Sept.,  1906. 

ALLARD,  H.  J.    The  Fibers  of  Long-staple  Upland  Cotton.  U.  S. 

Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Plant.  Ind.,  Bui.  No.  Ill,  Pt.  II. 
WATT,  G.    The  Wild  and  Cultivated  Cotton  Plants  of  the  World. 

London,  1907. 
WEBBER,  H.  J.,  and  BOYKIN,  E.  B.    Cotton.     Bailey's  Cyclo. 

Agr.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  247-257. 


CHAPTER  XV 
COTTON  — COMPOSITION  AND  PRINCIPAL  USES 

OF  course,  the  great  usefulness  of  cotton  lies  in  the  lint 
or  fiber.  In  fact,  when  one  speaks  of  "  cotton,"  he  usually 
refers  to  the  fiber  rather  than  to  the  plant  as  a  whole. 
There  are  other  uses,  however,  that  must  be  considered; 
and  it  is  important  to  know  the  chemical  composition  of 
the  parts. 

241.  The  lint.  —  Cotton  lint  consists  mostly  of  woody 
fiber  (cellulose),  which  is  formed  chiefly  from  the  carbon 
dioxid  of  the  air.     A  bale  of  cotton  (500  pounds  of  lint) 
contains  only  1.7  pounds  of  nitrogen,  half  a  pound  of  phos- 
phoric acid,   and  2.3  pounds  of  potash.      If   these  sub- 
stances be  rated  at  their  prices  in  commercial  fertilizers, 
the  plant-food  removed  in  a  bale  of  cotton  would  be  worth 
only  about  42  cents. 

In  selling  only  the  lint  the  farmer  removes  from  the  soil 
a  smaller  amount  of  fertility  than  in  growing  any  other 
American  crop.  When  cotton  lands  decline  in  fertility, 
it  is  not  because  of  the  lint  removed,  but  chiefly  on  account 
of  the  failure  to  rotate  crops  and  thus  to  replenish  the 
supply  of  vegetable  matter. 

242.  The  seed.  —  The  seed  of  cotton,  unlike  the  lint, 
is  rich  in  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash.     Hence 
the  sale  of  cotton  seed  removes  large  quantities  of  these 
forms  of  plant-food. 

267 


268  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

For  example,  1000  pounds  of  seed,  which  is  approxi- 
mately the  amount  usually  accompanying  one  500-pound 
bale  of  lint,  contains  about  31  pounds  of  nitrogen,  13 
pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  12  pounds  of  potash. 
To  replace  this  quantity  of  precious  plant-food  would 
require  commercial  fertilizers  costing  about  $6.25.  The 
draft  on  the  fertility  of  the  land  made  by  other  parts  of 
the  plant  are  indicated  in  later  paragraphs  of  this  book. 

243.  Composition  of  cotton  products.  —  The  most 
valuable  products  of  the  cotton  plant,  next  to  the  lint,  are 
those  made  from  the  seed.  In  round  numbers  there  are 
produced  annually  in  the  United  States  half  as  many  mil- 
lion tons  of  seed  as  million  bales  of  cotton.  More  than 
two  thirds  of  the  seed  is  used  by  the  oil  mills  and  less  than 
one  tenth  for  planting ;  the  remainder  is  either  fed  directly 
as  seed  to  live-stock,  or  else  employed  as  fertilizer.  The 
oil  in  the  seed  has  no  fertilizing  value ;  hence  more  wealth 
is  created  when  the  oil  mills  use  the  seed  than  when  the 
seeds  are  employed  as  fertilizer,  provided  the  farmer 
buys  enough  cotton-seed  meal  or  other  forms  of  commercial 
fertilizer  to  restore  to  his  land  the  plant-food  removed  in 
the  seed.  At  prices  prevailing  in  recent  years,  a  dollar 
buys  a  larger  amount  of  plant-food  in  the  form  of  cotton- 
seed meal  than  if  invested  in  cotton  seed. 

A  ton  of  cotton  seed  ordinarily  produces  approximately  the 
following  results  at  the  oil  mills  :  — 

POUNDS 

Oil  (38  to  45  gallons),  average  about 300 

Cotton-seed  meal,  average  about 750 

Cotton-seed  hulls,  average  about 800 

Linters,  average  about 30 

Waste,  sand,  trash,  and  evaporation,  average  about      .     .  120 

Total  2000 


COTTON  COMPOSITION 


269 


The  food  and  fertilizer  constituents  contained  in  one  ton  of 
cotton  seed  and  of  a  similar  amount  of  high-grade  cotton-seed 
meal  are  as  follows :  — 

Pounds  of  Food  and  Fertilizer  Constituents  in  One  Ton 
of  Cotton  Seed  and  of  high-grade  Cotton-seed  meal 


FOOD  CONSTITUENTS 

COTTON 
SEED 
RICHER  BY 

COTTON- 
SEED MEAL 
RICHER  BY 

Cotton  seed, 
2000  Ib. 

Cotton-seed 
meal,  2000 
Ib. 

Principal  food  constituents 
Protein       
Nitrogen-free  extract   . 
Fat   

Lb. 

397 
469 
398 
451 

63 
25 
23 

Lb. 

846 
472 
204 
112 

113 
54 
36 

% 

95 
303 

% 

113 
1 

79 
116 
57 

Fiber     

Fertilizer  constituents 
Nitrogen    
Phosphoric  acid  .     ... 
Potash  ...... 

244.  Utilizing  cotton-seed  products.  —  From  the  above 
table  it  may  be  seen  that,  regarded  as  food,  and  overlooking 
slight  differences  in  digestibility,  cotton-seed  meal  is  much 
more  valuable  than  cotton  seed,  having  more  than  twice 
as  much  protein,  but  less  fat  and  fiber. 

In  fertilizer  constituents,  high-grade  cotton-seed  meal 
is  practically  twice  as  rich  in  nitrogen  and  phosphoric 
acid,  and  more  than  50  per  cent  richer  in  potash,  than 
cotton  seed. 

The  farmer  may  act  on  the  general  statement  that  he  is 
making  a  nearly  even  exchange  in  plant-food  when  he 
brings  back  to  his  farm  half  a  ton  of  cotton-seed  meal  for 
each  ton  of  seed  sold.  But  in  food  constituents,  cotton- 


270  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

seed  meal  is  not  twice  as  rich  as  cotton  seed.  The  exchange 
values  of  these  two  foods  will  depend  upon  many  condi- 
tions, especially  the  kind  of  roughage  to  be  fed  in  connec- 
tion with  either,  the  purpose  in  view,  and  other  matters 
that  find  a  place  in  textbooks  on  feeding  animals.  In 
tests  at  the  Mississippi  Experiment  Station,  a  pound  of 
cotton-seed  meal  was  in  one  case  equal  as  food  to  1.6  pounds 
of  cotton  seed,  and  in  another  case  to  1.7  pounds. 

In  general,  one  may  expect  a  ton  of  cotton  seed  to  have 
the  same  feeding  value  as  an  amount  of  cotton-seed  meal 
varying  between  1250  and  1500  pounds. 

245.  Composition  of  the  different  parts  of  the  plant.  — 
The  stems  contain  nearly  one  fourth  of  the  dry  matter, 
the  leaves  and  seeds  each  a  little  more  than  one  fifth,  and 
the  lint  only  one  ninth  of  the  total  dry  matter  in  the 
mature  plant.  The  seed  and  lint,  which  are  usually  the 
only  portions  of  the  plant  removed  from  the  land,  together 
constitute  one  third  of  the  total  weight  of  dry  matter. 
However,  the  proportion  of  seed  and  lint  to  other  parts  of 
the  plant  varies  widely  according  to  the  luxuriance  of 
growth  and  other  conditions.  Doubtless  the  seed  and  lint 
together  often  constitute  less  than  one  third  of  the  total 
weight  of  the  plant. 

The  above  statements  are  based  on  the  following  figures, 
giving  the  average  results  of  a  chemical  study  of  the  different 
parts  of  the  cotton  plant  as  made  by  B.  B.  Ross  at  the  Alabama 
Experiment  Station  (Bulletin  No.  107),  and  by  J.  B.  McBryde 
at  the  South  Carolina  Experiment  Station.  (See  Bui.,  Vol.  IV, 
No.  5,  Tenn.  Expr.  Sta.) 

These  figures  show  the  amounts,  and  proportions  by  weight, 
of  the  different  parts  of  the  mature  dry  cotton  plants  growing  on 
an  acre  where  the  yield  of  lint  is  300  pounds  :  — 


COTTON  COMPOSITION 


271 


POUNDS  DRY  MATTER 
PER  ACRE 

PER  CENT  OF  TOTAL 
WEIGHT  OP  DRY  PLANT 

Seed     

580 

21.77 

300 

11.35 

Roots    *'    • 

190 

7.03 

Stems              ..... 

631 

23.80 

Leaves            .     .     .     •     . 

571 

21.58 

Burs                .     .     .     •     ••• 

344 

14.55 

Seed  and  lint  combined   . 

33.12 

246.  Amounts  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash 
in  the  different  parts  of  the  cotton  plant.  —  The  following 
table  shows  that  to  produce  a  crop  of  300  pounds  of  dry 
lint  and  the  other  parts  associated  with  this  amount  of 
fiber  there  was  required  about  42  pounds  of  nitrogen,  13 
pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  35  pounds  of  potash.  The 
figures  are  reached  by  averaging  the  analyses  made  by  Ross 
and  McBryde,  and  are  here  given  merely  for  reference :  — 

Amounts  of  Fertilizer  Constituents  required  to  produce  a  Crop  oj 
300  Pounds  of  Lint 


DRY  MATTER 
PER  ACRE 
LB. 

NITROGEN 
LB. 

PHOSPHORIC 
ACID 
LB. 

POTASH 
LB. 

Lint     

300 

063 

0  23 

200 

Seed     

580 

1901 

688 

668 

Burs     

344 

375 

1  44 

11  71 

Leaves      .... 
Roots  

571 
190 

13.25 
1  21 

2.64 
036 

6.35 
1  96 

Stems  

631 

452 

1  25 

644 

Total    .... 

2656 

42.37 

12.80 

35.14 

247.  Uses.  —  Cotton  is  used  to  a  greater  extent  than 
any  other  vegetable  fiber  for  clothing.     Wool  is  the  only 


272  SOUTHEEN  FIELD   CROPS 

other  fiber  that  approaches  cotton  in  the  extent  of  use  for 
this  purpose.  Cotton  is  adapted  to  the  manufacture  of  a 
greater  variety  of  textile  fabrics  than  any  other  fiber. 
When  it  is  treated  with  certain  chemicals,  or  mercerized, 
the  fabric  takes  on  a  glossy  appearance  and  becomes  a  fair 
imitation  of  silk. 

One  reason  why  cotton  is  so  much  more  extensively 
used  than  linen,  jute,  and  other  vegetable  fibers  is  found: 
(1)  in  the  readiness  with  which  cotton  fibers  absorb  dyes, 
and  (2)  in  the  peculiar  twisted  structure  of  its  fibers,  so 
favorable  to  ease  of  spinning  and  strength  of  thread. 

The  seed  constitute  a  valuable  food  for  cattle  and  sheep. 
They  are  usually  fed  raw,  though  sometimes  boiled  when 
fed  to  dairy  cows.  After  the  seed  are  ground  in  the  oil 
mills,  the  hulls  are  separated  and  used  as  cattle  food. 

From  the  "  meats,"  or  hulled  and  ground  seed,  cotton- 
seed oil  is  expressed  by  means  of  powerful  hydraulic 
presses.  This  oil  finds  use  as  a  human  food,  especially  as 
a  constituent  of  compound  lard,  oleomargarine,  salad  oils, 
etc.,  as  a  lubricant,  as  a  constituent  of  paint,  in  the  manu- 
facture of  soap,  and  in  almost  all  ways  in  which  other  oils 
are  employed.  After  the  extraction  of  the  oil,  the  residue 
constitutes  one  of  the  most  nutritious  of  foods  for  cattle 
and  sheep.  It  is  fed  either  in  the  form  of  cake  (lumps), 
or  more  frequently  this  cake  is  first  ground,  thus  forming 
cotton-seed  meal,  which  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  foods 
for  cattle.  Large  amounts  of  cotton-seed  meal  are  also 
used  as  fertilizer. 

Cotton-seed  meal  as  a  foodstuff  is  chiefly  used  for  cattle 
and  sheep.  It  exerts  a  specific  toxic  effect  on  hogs  when  fed 
in  quantity  for  a  certain  length  of  time.  Ill  effects  are 


COTTON  COMPOSITION  273 

seldom  observed  in  less  than  four  weeks,  and  they  are 
usually  shown  in  the  periods  between  the  thirtieth  and 
fortieth  day  after  the  feeding  of  cotton-seed  meal  is  begun. 
Fermenting  the  meal  seems  to  decrease  this  danger,  as 
probably  does  also  the  feeding  of  green  or  succulent  food  at 
the  same  time.  Cotton-seed  meal  is  injurious  to  young 
calves,  and  probably  to  most  very  young  animals. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

From  the  tables  on  page  271  calculate  for  an  acre  producing 
500  pounds  of  lint  what  would  be  the  probable  weight  of 

(a)  dry  stems,  or  stalks ; 

(6)  the  number  of  pounds  of  nitrogen  lost  if  the  stalks,  roots, 
and  burs  of  a  crop  of  this  size  be  burned,  assuming  that  these 
parts  of  the  plant  increase  at  the  same  rate  as  the  yield  of  lint. 

LITERATURE 

Ross,  B.  B.    Ala.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  107,  pp.  369-402. 
HUTCHINSON,  W.  L.,  and  PATTERSON,  L.  G.     Miss.  Expr.  Sta., 

Tech.  Bui.  No.  1. 

SHIVER,  F.  S.     S.  C.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  47. 
MCBRYDE,  J.  B.     Tenn.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.,  Vol.  IV,  No.  5. 
KILGORE,  B.  W.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  33. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
COTTON  — THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES 

COTTON  may  be  annual  or  biennial,  according  to  the 
particular  species,  and  dependent  upon  the  climate  in 
which  the  plant  grows.  As  cultivated  in  the  principal 
cotton-producing  countries,  all  the  important  species  of 
cotton  are  annuals,  maturing  seed  before  cold  weather, 
and  being  killed  by  frost.  In  very  warm  countries,  plants 
of  some  species  live  for  a  number  of  years.  This  tend- 
ency toward  a  perennial  habit  still  exists  in  the  cotton 
grown  in  the  United  States,  as  is  evident  from  its  throwing 
out,  after  a  mild  winter,  shoots  from  the  roots  or  stem  of 
the  preceding  year. 

248.  Family  and  genus.  —  The  cotton  plant  is  one  of 
the  Mallow  family  (Malvacece).  This  family  also  in- 
cludes okra;  a  number  of  cultivated  flowers,  as,  holly- 
hocks, hibiscus,  and  althea  or  "  Rose  of  Sharon " ;  a 
considerable  number  of  not  very  troublesome  weeds; 
and  certain  plants  the  bark  of  which  affords  useful  fiber. 
The  Mallow  family  includes  both  herbs  and  shrubs  or 
trees.  All  the  plants  within  it  have  flowers  with  five 
petals  and  numerous  stamens,  the  supports  for  the  sta- 
mens forming  a  tube  around  the  pistil ;  there  are  usually 
several  leaf -like  parts  (bracts)  just  below  and  around 
the  flower,  three  of  these  forming  in  cotton  what  is  known 

274 


COTTON  SPECIES  276 

as  the  square.  The  leaves  are  alternate,  and  the  veining 
of  the  leaves  begins  at  a  common  point  near  the  base  of 
the  leaf  blade;  that  is,  the  leaves  are  palmately  veined. 

The  genus,  or  subdivision  of  a  family,  to  which  the  cotton 
plant  belongs,  is  Gossypium.  In  this  genus  the  stigmas, 
grown  together,  usually  number  three  to  five,  according  to 
the  number  of  locks  which  will  be  contained  in  the  mature 
fruit  or  boll.  The  leaves  are  lobed,  the  size  and  shape  of 
the  lobes  varying  in  the  different  species. 

249.  Principal  species  of  cotton.  —  Botanists  differ 
widely  as  to  the  number  of  species  of  Gossypium  and  as  to 
the  name  that  should  be  applied  to  certain  species.  More- 
over, some  cultivated  cottons  are  crosses  or  hybrids  be- 
tween two  species,  thus  increasing  the  difficulty  of  properly 
naming  each  kind.  For  example,  until  recent  years  it  was 
customary  to  refer  to  the  present  commonly  grown  upland 
cotton  of  the  United  States  as  Gossypium  herbaceum,  a 
name  now  given  to  one  of  the  Asiatic  cottons.  Watt 
("Wild  and  Cultivated  Cotton  Plants  of  the  World") 
assumes  that  for  a  time  the  early  colonists  did  grow  this 
species  in  Virginia,  but  that  before  cotton  became  an 
important  crop  it  was  displaced  by  the  present  type  of 
American  upland  cotton;  the  former,  he  thinks,  still 
influences  American  upland  cotton  through  its  hybrids. 
The  latest  investigators  favor  the  name  Gossypium  hir- 
sutum,  to  include  both  the  ordinary  or  short-staple  cotton 
of  the  United  States  and  also  the  long-staple  upland  cotton 
of  this  country. 

As  many  as  fifty-four  species  of  Gossypium  have  been 
described  and  named,  but  most  botanists  reduce  the  species 
to  a  much  smaller  number. 


276  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

The  following  may  be  regarded  as  the  species  most  im- 
portant to  the  world's  agriculture,  commerce,  and  manu- 
facture. 

American  group. 

(1)  Upland  cotton  (Gossypium  hirsutum).    This  is  the 
ordinary  cotton  of  the  southern  part  of  the  United  States, 
including  the  long-staple  class. 

(2)  Sea  Island  cotton  (Gossypium  barbadense ;  so  named 
from  the  Barbadoes   Islands).     This  affords  the  finest, 
longest,  and  most  valuable  of  all  cotton  fibers. 

(3)  Peruvian  cotton  (Gossypium  peruvianum).     Its  im- 
portance is  not  due  to  its  cultivation  in  its  home  in  Peru, 
but  to  its  having  become  the  principal  cotton  of  Egypt. 
Although  transplanted  to  Asia,  it  retains  a  closer  kinship 
to  American  than  to  true  Asiatic  cottons. 

Asiatic  group. 

(4)  Indian  cotton  (Gossypium  obtusifolium;  so  named 
from  the  lobes  or  divisions  of  the  leaves  being  rounded  or 
obtuse)  includes  the  best  grades  of  Indian  cotton,  often 
called  in  commerce  Broach  or  Surat  cotton. 

(5)  Bengal  cotton  (Gossypium  arboreum)  is  another  im- 
portant cotton  of  India. 

The  members  of  the  American  group,  including  Sea 
Island,  ordinary  upland,  and  Egyptian,  cross  freely  among 
themselves.  Most  Asiatic  kinds  also  cross  freely  among 
themselves.  However,  Gammie l  in  his  experiments  found 
that  the  American  cottons  did  not  cross  with  those  of  the 
Asiatic  group.  While  there  is  undoubtedly  difficulty  in 

*  Gammie,  "  The  Indian  Cottons."    Calcutta. 


COTTON  SPECIES 


277 


making  most  crosses  between  the  American  and  Asiatic 
groups,  Watt  maintains  that  such  crosses  are  possible. 

250.  American  upland  cotton.  —  This  constitutes  all  of 
the  cotton  crop  of  the  United  States  except  the  small 
amount  of  Sea  Island  cotton  grown  near  the  South  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  coasts.  It  forms  the  largest  single  item  of  ex- 
port, and  brings  into  the  United  States  more  money  than 
any  other  crop  or  single  line  of  manufacture. 

American  upland  cotton  may  be  divided  into  two  prin- 
cipal classes:  (1)  short-staple  varieties  and  (2)  long-staple 
varieties.  The  chief  distinction  between  these  is  in  the 
length  of  lint,  that  of 
short-staple  being  usu- 
ally f  to  1|-  inches, 
while  long-staple,  or 
"  staple  cotton,"  usu- 
ally has  a  length  of 
1J  to  If  inches. 

Between  these  two 
groups,  which  are 
somewhat  sharply  dis- 
tinguished from  each 
other,  lies  an  inter- 
mediate class.  The 
cottons  of  this  class  are  called  commercially  "  Benders" 
or  "  Rivers."  These  names  arise  from  the  fact  that  this 
intermediate  kind  is  grown  chiefly  on  moist  bottom  land. 
Such  soil  has  a  tendency  to  lengthen  the  staple  even  of  a 
short-staple  variety.  Moreover,  there  are  varieties  hav- 
ing intermediate  lengths  of  lint,  even  when  grown  on  up- 
land. 


FIG.  130. — VARIOUS  SHAPES  OF  COTTON 
BOLLS. 

On  left,  Sea  Island  ;  in  center,  a  typical 
long-staple  ;  and  on  right,  a  typical  short- 
staple  of  the  big-boll  class. 


278 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


There  are  usually  other  differences  between  long-  and 
short-staple  cotton,  though  these  are  by  no  means  univer- 
sal distinctions.  As  a  rule  the  long-staple  cotton  plant  is 
late  in  maturing,  tall,  and  supplied  with  bolls  that  are 
slenderer  and  more  sharply  pointed  than  is  the  case  with 
most  short-staple  varieties  (Fig.  130).  Long-staple  cotton 


FIG.  131.  —  A  SEA  ISLAND  COTTON  PLANT. 

invariably  has  a  lower  percentage  of  lint ;  the  yield  of  lint 
is  less,  frequently  below  80  per  cent  of  that  yielded  by 
short-staple  varieties  on  the  same  grade  of  land. 

The  difference  in  price  between  long-  and  short-staple 
cotton  varies  greatly  from  year  to  year.    Generally  this 


COTTON  SPECIES 


279 


difference,  or  premium,  for  long  staple  is  between  3  and 
5  cents  per  pound  of  lint. 

251.  Sea  Island  cotton  (Fig.  131).  —  This  cotton  is 
grown  only  in  limited  areas  on  or  rather  near  the  seacoast 
in  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Florida.  It  is  generally 


FIG.  132.  —  WHERE  SEA  ISLAND  COTTON  is  GROWN. 
Each  dot  stands  for  an  annual  yield  of  500  bales. 

regarded  as  a  profitable  crop  only  within  a  distance  of 
about  100  miles  from  the  coast  (Fig.  132). 

The  Sea  Island  cotton  plant  is  distinguished  from  upland 
cotton  chiefly  by  the  following  characteristics  :  — 

(1)  A  taller  plant,  with  longer,  slenderer  branches,  and 
later  maturity ; 


280  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 

(2)  Leaves  with  much  longer  and  slenderer  lobes ; 

(3)  The  absence  of  hairs  from  leaves  and  stems ; 

(4)  The  yellowish  color  of  the  fresh  blooms  and  the  pres- 
ence of  red  spots  near  the  base  of  each  petal  ; 

(5)  The  much  smaller,  slenderer  boll,  with  usually  only 
three,  or  sometimes  four,  locks  ; 

(6)  The  longer,  finer  fiber  and  the  naked  black  seed 
nearly  or  quite  free  from  fuzz. 

The  usual  length  of  fiber  is  1|  to  2  inches.  In  quality 
Sea  Island  cotton  is  fine  and  silky.  It  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  the  most  expensive  cotton  fabrics,  such  as  laces, 
fine  hosiery,  and  lawns. 

In  recent  years  some  grades  of  Sea  Island  cotton  have 
commanded  a  price  above  35  cents  per  pound,  and  espe- 
cially fine  strains  a  still  higher  figure. 

252.  Peruvian  and  Egyptian  cotton.  —  True  Peruvian 
cotton,  including  the  leading  varieties  now  grown  in 
Egypt,  have  a  brownish  lint.  The  fiber  of  Egyptian  cotton 
is  longer  than  that  of  American  upland  long  staple  but 
shorter  and  less  valuable  than  that  of  the  Sea  Island.  It  is 
an  interesting  fact  that,  though  the  United  States  exports 
millions  of  bales  of  upland  or  short-staple  cotton,  American 
manufacturers  find  it  necessary  to  import  annually  about 
150,000  bales  of  Egyptian  cotton.  This  is  because  Egyp- 
tian cotton  is  needed  for  special  purposes;  for  example,  it  is. 
the  kind  best  suited  to  the  chemical  treatment  known  as 
mercerization,  by  which  a  silky  luster  is  imparted.  Mer- 
cerization  consists  in  treating  the  fiber  with  a  solution  of 
caustic  soda,  washing  it,  then  treating  the  fiber  with  dilute 
sulphuric  acid,  and  again  washing  it. 

Some  varieties  of  Egyptian  cotton  have  white  lint  and 


COTTON  SPECIES  281 

seem  to  be  hybrids  decended  in  parts  from  the  American 
Sea  Island  species. 

253.  Asiatic  cottons.  —  The  cotton  grown  in  India  and 
elsewhere  in  Asia  is  less  productive  and  has  a  shorter  fiber 
than  American  short-staple  cotton.  The  colors  of  the 
flowers  are  various,  and  the  forms  of  plants  and  of  the 
leaves  differ  from  those  of  any  of  the  American  groups. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

1.  Make  a  drawing  showing  the  stamens  and  stigmas  of  a 
cotton  flower,  after  removing  the  bracts  and  petals. 

2.  If  specimen  plants  of  Sea  Island  cotton  can  be  had,  or  if  the 
seed  and  lint  can  be  obtained,  compare  them  with  the  corre- 
sponding parts  of  American  upland  cotton. 

LITERATURE 

DEWEY,  L.  H.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Yearbook,  1903,  pp.  388-390. 
EVANS,  W.  E.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  33, 

pp.  67-76. 
WATT,  G.     The  Wild  and   Cultivated    Cotton    Plants   of    th« 

World.    London,  1907. 
GAMMIE,  G.  A.     The  Indian  Cottons.     Calcutta,  1905. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
COTTON  —  VARIETIES    OF   AMERICAN   UPLAND 

THERE  are  many  hundred  names  to  represent  varieties 
of  cotton.  The  Alabama  Experiment  Station  has  tested 
more  than  two  hundred  of  these  so-called  varieties  and  has 
found  that  a  large  proportion  of  them  are  merely  synonyms. 
However,  it  is  probable  that  the  number  of  distinct  varie- 
ties, each  differing  from  the  other  in  one  or  more  items  of 
agricultural  or  botanical  importance,  exceeds  one  hundred. 

254.  Reasons  for  variation.  —  Among  the  causes  which 
have  led  to  this  multiplication  of  varieties  are  the  follow- 
ing:— 

(1)  Modifications  of  the  plant  resulting  from  continuous 
selection,  or  from  special  soil  and  climatic  conditions ; 

(2)  Artificial  crosses  intentionally  made  with  a  view  to 
creating  new  varieties  combining  some  of  the  qualities  of 
both  parents ; 

(3)  Natural  hybrids  resulting  chiefly  from  the  carrying 
of  pollen  by  insects  from  the  flowers  of  one  variety  to  the 
stigmas  of  another ; 

(4)  Names  have  been  needlessly  multiplied,  both  inten- 
tionally and  unintentionally,  so  that  some  varieties  may  be 
purchased  under  half  a  dozen  different  names. 

255.  Varieties  of  cotton  not  easily  recognized.  —  The 
differences  between  the  numerous  agricultural  varieties 

282 


COTTON   VARIETIES  285 

are  so  slight  that  even  an  expert  is  unable  to  identify  with 
certainty  any  but  those  varieties  having  the  most  definite 
characteristics.  Indeed,  the  description  of  any  variety 
will  not  apply  to  all  the  plants  in  it,  but  is  to  be  taken 
rather  as  a  general  or  average  portrayal. 

256.  Classification  of  varieties.  —  The  study  of  varie- 
ties may  be  much  simplified  by  arranging  them  in  a  small 
number  of  groups,  as  is  done  in  the  subjoined  scheme  of 
classification.     The  American  upland  short-staple  cottons 
may  be  divided  into  six  classes ;  to  this  is  added  a  seventh 
division  to  include  short-staple  varieties  of  a  character 
intermediate  between  any  other  two  groups.     An  eighth 
group  differs  from  all   the  others  because  its  members 
possess  a  long  staple. 

Group  1.  —  Cluster  type. 

Group  2.  —  Semicluster  type. 

Group  3.  —  Rio  Grande  type,  of  which  the  Peterkin  is 
an  example. 

Group  4.  —  The  early  varieties  of  the  King  type. 

Group  5.  —  The  Big-boll  type. 

Group  6.  —  The  Long-limbed  type. 

Group  7.  —  Intermediate  varieties. 

Group  8.  —  Long-staple  Upland  varieties. 

The  lines  of  separation  between  these  groups  are  not 
distinct ;  one  group  gradually  merges  into  another. 

257.  Cluster  group.  —  The  varieties  belonging  here  are 
easily  distinguished,  (1)  by  the  extreme  shortness  of  the 
fruit  limbs  in  the  middle  and  upper  parts  of  the  plant 
(Fig.  133),  and  (2)  by  the  tendency  of  the  bolls  to  grow  in 
clusters  of  two  or  three  (Fig.  134).     The  few  base  limbs 
are  usually  long.     The  plant  in  general  possesses  an  ap- 


284 


SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 


FIG.  133. — A  COTTON  PLANT  OF  THE  CLUSTER  TYPE. 


COTTON   VARIETIES 


285 


pearance  of  slenderness  or  erectness.  The  bolls  are  usually 
small ;  the  seeds  are  small  to  medium  in  size  and  thickly 
covered  with  fuzz. 

On  account  of  the  peculiar  shape  of  plant,  cluster  va- 
rieties may  be  left  thicker  in  the  drill  than  most  other  kinds. 

This  class  of  cotton  is 
much  less  popular  now  than 
formerly.  This  is  probably 
due  to  the  deficiencies  usu- 
ally found  in  cluster  cotton; 
namely :  — 

(1)  A  special  tendency  to 
shed  or  drop  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  fruit  when  con- 
ditions of  soil  and  weather 
are  unfavorable; 

(2)  The  small  size  of  boll ; 
and 

(3)  The  large  proportion 

of  trash  which  must  usually  be  included  with  the  seed 
cotton  when  picking,  —  this  trash  consisting  largely  of  the 
bracts,  which  at  an  earlier  stage  formed  the  square. 
Examples  of  cluster  varieties  are  Jackson  and  Dickson. 

258.  Semicluster  group.  —  The  varieties  of  this  class 
present  somewhat  the  appearance  of  cluster  cottons,  but 
the  fruiting  limbs  in  the  middle  of  the  plant  are  of  short  to 
medium  length  (Fig.  135).  The  bolls,  while  close  together, 
are  not  borne  in  clusters.  This  characteristic  is  sometimes 
united  with  the  qualities  found  in  other  groups,  in  which 
case  the  variety  is  classed,  not  as  a  semicluster,  but  in 
accordance  with  its  other  striking  characteristic. 


FIG.  134.  —  A  FRUITING  LIMB  OF  A 
CLUSTER  COTTON  PLANT. 

Showing  four  bolls  ;  also  a  branch 
terminated  by  a  boll,  and  hence  not 
capable  of  further  growth. 


286 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


FIG.  135. — A  COTTON  PLANT  OP  THE  SEMICLUSTEB  TYPE. 


COTTON   VARIETIES 


287 


There  is  much  diversity  among  the  semicluster  varieties 
in  size  of  boll,  size  of  seed,  and  percentage  of  lint. 

Among  semicluster  varieties  are  Hawkins  and  Poulnot. 

259.  Rio  Grande  group.  —  This  is  named  for  one  of  the 
earlier  varieties,  which  had  almost  the  same  characteristics 
as  the  Peterkin, 
now  so  exten- 
sively grown. 
Among  the  dis- 
tinguishing 
marks  of  this 
group  are  (1)  a 
large  propor- 
tion of  lint, 
usually  35  to  40 
per  cent  of  the 
weight  of  the 
seed  cotton,  and 
(2)  small  seeds, 
many  of  which 
are  nearly 
naked ;  that  is, 

thinly    Covered  FIG.  136.  —  THE  PETERKIN  TYPE  OF  COTTON  PLANT. 

with  short  fuzz, 

so  that  the  seeds  appear  dark  or  even  black. 

The  leaves  are,  as  a  rule,  smaller  and  supplied  with 
narrower,  more  sharply  pointed  lobes  than  in  the  case  of 
many  other  varieties.  The  bolls  are  small  to  medium  and 
the  seed  small  to  very  small.  The  branches  are  usually 
slender  and  rather  straight,  and  either  medium-  or  long- 
jointed  (Fig.  136). 


288 


SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 


260.  The  Early  King-like  group  (Fig.  137).  —  The  plants 
are  small  to  medium  in  size.     The  fruit  limbs,  even  near 

the  top  of  the  plant,  are 
long,  slender,  and  often 
crooked.  The  vegetative 
branches  at  the  base  of 
the  plant  are  short  or 
wanting.  The  bolls  are 
small.  The  leaves  are 
similar  to  those  of  the 
Rio  Grande  group.  The 
seeds  are  usually  small 
and  covered  with  fuzz  of 
various  shades.  A  large 

FIG.  137. — A  COTTON  PLANT  OF  THE   proportion  of  the  blooms 
KING  TYPE.  Qn  varietieg  of  thig  type 

are  marked  with  red  spots  near  the  inner  base  of  each  petal. 
The  King  and  its  synonyms  and  related  varieties  consti- 
tute the  earliest  of  the  commonly  grown  American  upland 
cottons. 

The  chief  faults  of  these  varieties  are  the  small  size  of 
boll,  the  short  fiber,  and  the  tendency  of  the  seed  cotton 
to  fall  frpm  the  burs. 

261.  The  Big-boll  group.  —  The  one  characteristic  serv- 
ing to  identify  the  varieties  of  this  group  is  the  large  size 
of  the  boll.     While  the  size  of  boll  varies  with  many  con- 
ditions, an  arbitrary  division  must  be  made  somewhere; 
hence,  in  this  scheme  of  classification,  bolls  are  considered 
large  if  sixty-eight  or  fewer  mature  bolls  yield  one  pound  of 
seed  cotton.     This  group  may  be  further  subdivided  into 
the  following  overlapping  subdivisions :  — 


FIG.  138.  — A  COTTON  PLANT  OF  THE  BIG-BOLL  STORM-PROOF  TYPE. 
U 


290  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROP3 

(1)  Storm-proof  big-boll  cottons  (Fig.  138) ; 

(2)  Big-boll  varieties  having  plants  of  the  shape  that 
characterizes  the  semicluster  group;  and 

(3)  Ordinary  big-boll  varieties  having  neither  marked 
storm  resistance  nor  semicluster  shape  of  plant. 

Examples  of  storm-proof  big-boll  cottons  are  Triumph, 
Rowden,  and  Texas  Storm-proof.  Among  the  semicluster 
big-boll  varieties  are  some  strains  of  Truitt,  Bancroft,  and 
individual  plants  of  a  number  of  big-boll  varieties. 

Among  big-boll  varieties  of  the  third  subdivision  are 
the  widely  grown  Truitt  and  Russell,  the  latter  having 
green  seed.  Here,  too,  belong  Cleveland  and  Cook,  two 
very  productive  varieties,  the  bolls  of  which  are  sometimes 
scarcely  large  enough  to  admit  these  varieties  into  the  big- 
boll  class,  where  they  usually  belong. 

262.  The  Long-limbed  group.  —  In  this  class  the  plants 
grow  to  large  size  and  have  long  limbs  with  long  internodes; 
that  is,  they  are  "  long  jointed."     Apparently  this  is  a 
disappearing   class,   represented    chiefly   by  unimproved 
cotton.     No  existing  variety  of  notable  productiveness  is 
included  in  this  group. 

263.  The  Intermediate  group.  —  This  group  is  provided 
merely  as  a  matter  of  convenience  to  include  varieties  that 
are  too  nearly  halfway  between  any  other  two  groups  to  be 
assigned  to  one  of  them. 

264.  The  Long-staple  Upland  group  (Fig.  139).  —  The 
superior  length  of  staple  is  the  distinguishing  characteristic 
of  this  group.     The  lint  usually  measures  1 J  to  1^  inches. 
The  percentage  of  lint  in  the  seed  cotton  is  low,  usually  less 
than  thirty-one.     Examples  of  this  group  are  Allen  Long- 
staple,  in  which  the  plants  are  tall  and  usually  of  a  semi- 


COTTON   VARIETIES 


291 


cluster  shape.     The  bolls  of  Allen  Long-staple  are  slender 
and  small,  and  the  seed  are  densely  covered  with  white 


FIG.   139. — A  COTTON  PLANT  OF  THE  LONG-STAPLE  UPLAND  TYPE. 

fuzz  (Fig.  140.)  Other  examples  are  Griffin,  which  has 
a  very  long  but  weak  lint,  and  bolls  that  are  above  the 
average  in  size  for  long-staple  varieties. 

On  upland  soils  the  long-staple  varieties  are  usually  less 
productive  than  short-staple  cottons  and  afford  a  lint 
shorter  than  that  produced  on  moist,  rich,  bottom  land. 
However,  the  Blue  Ribbon,  a  variety  resulting  from  a  cross 
between  a  long-staple  upland  and  a  short-staple  kind,  has 
proved  well  adapted  to  upland  soils,  especially  in  the  Pied- 
mont Region  of  the  northern  part  of  South  Carolina.  The 
chief  fault  of  the  last-named  variety  is  its  special  liability 
to  injury  from  boll-rot  (anthracnose,  see  Par.  386). 

265.  Productiveness  of  varieties.  —  The  most  impor- 
tant fact  brought  out  by  a  study  of  the  numerous  tests  of 


292 


COTTON  VARIETIES  293 

varieties  of  cotton  made  at  all  of  the  Experiment  Stations 
within  the  cotton-belt  is  that  there  is  no  one  variety  that 
has  proved  most  productive  for  all  conditions  of  soil  and 
climate.  The  reason  for  this  is  easily  seen.  A  very  early 
variety  is  usually  the  best  for  the  extreme  northern  portion 
of  the  cotton-belt,  because  of  the  shortness  of  the  season 
there;  but  this  same  variety,  if  carried  farther  south,  is 
usually  surpassed  in  yield  by  later  varieties,  which  continue 
to  make  fruit  through  a  longer  season.  Moreover,  it  is 
apparently  true  that  varieties  originating  on  one  class  of 
soil  are  placed  at  a  disadvantage  when  tested  on  a  widely 
different  type  of  soil. 

At  the  Alabama  Experiment  Station,  the  varieties  which 
in  recent  years  have  usually  taken  highest  rank  in  yield  of 
lint  per  acre  are  Cleveland,  Cook  Improved,  Toole,  Lay- 
ton,  and  Poulnot.  It  is  notable  that  Cleveland,  Cook,  and 
Toole  have  also  occupied  high  positions  in  tests  made  in 
Georgia  and  in  several  different  parts  of  Mississippi. 
Cook  has  made  a  good  record  also  in  several  localities  in 
North  Carolina. 

Leading  varieties  at  Southern  experiment  stations.  — The  follow- 
ing table  makes  mention  of  those  varieties  which  have,  as  a  rule, 
taken  high  rank  in  yield  of  lint  per  acre  at  the  experiment  sta- 
tions in  the  cotton-belt :  — 

List  of  Varieties  making  Largest  Yields  of  Lint  per  Acre  at  Experi- 
ment Stations  through  a  Number  of  Years 

Alabama  (Auburn)  Cook  Improved 

Toole 
Cleveland 
Layton 
Poulnot 
Jackson 


294 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


Alabama  (Canebrake) 


Georgia 


Louisiana  (Baton  Rouge  and  Calhoun) 
(Boll  weevil  present) 


Mississippi  (Agricultural  College  Station) 


Mississippi  (McNeil  Substation) 


Mississippi  (Delta  Substation) 


Truitt 
Russell 
Peerless 
Peterkin 

Cook  Improved 

Layton 

Cleveland 

Toole 

Jackson 

Jones  Re-improved 

Peterkin 

King 


Simpkins 

King 

Toole 

Triumph 

Rublee 

Cleveland 

Cook 

Lewis  Prize 

Hawkins 

Russell 

King 

Cook 

Toole 

Cleveland 

King 

Peterkin 

Cleveland 
Lewis  Prize 
Cook 
Triumph 


COTTON   VARIETIES  295 

North  Carolina  (Edgecomb,  in  Coastal  Plain) 

Cook 
Russell 
Culpepper 
Peterkin 

North  Carolina  (Piedmont  Region)  King 

Cook 
Shine 
Edgeworth 

North  Carolina  (Red  Springs)  Culpepper 

Excelsior 
King 
Russell 

South  Carolina  (Clemson  College  Station) 

Toole 
Texas  Oak 
Bates  Improved 
Peerless 

South  Carolina  (Greenville,  3  years)  Texas  Wood 

Peterkin 
Truitt 

South  Carolina  (Columbia,  1883-1888)       Duncan  Mammoth 

Jones  Improved 
Dickson 

South  Carolina  (Darlington,  in  Coastal  Plain) 

Peterkin 

Texas  (College  Station)  Excelsior 

Triumph 
Beck  Big-boll 
Bohemian 
Peterkin 
Texas  Oak 
Sure  Fruit 
Lowry 


296  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


Descriptions  of  Prominent  and  Typical  Varieties 

Jackson.  —  The  Jackson  variety  is  one  of  the  tallest  and 
slenderest  of  the  cluster  group.  It  has  also  been  known  as 
African  and  Limbless,  neither  of  which  is  correct;  it  did  not 
originate  in  Africa,  as  once  claimed,  and  only  a  small  proportion 
of  the  plants  lack  the  long  base  limbs. 

The  bolls  are  small,  closely  clustered,  and  very  difficult  to  pick. 
These  constitute  the  chief  objections  to  this  variety,  which  is 
quite  productive,  especially  when  the  plants  are  crowded  rather 
closely,  and  this  can  be  done  with  this  erect  variety  to  a  greater 
extent  than  with  long-limbed  kinds.  The  percentage  of  lint  is 
above  medium.  The  seed  is  fuzzy,  of  medium  to  small  size,  and 
usually  covered  with  a  brownish  gray  fuzz. 

Hawkins.  —  This  variety  is  typical  of  the  semicluster  group. 
It  is  rather  early  in  maturity.  The  bolls  are  small  to  medium  and 
the  percentage  of  seed  cotton  medium. 

Peterkin.  —  This  variety  is  a  type  of  the  Rio  Grande  group, 
having  some  seed  that  are  nearly  naked  or  slightly  covered  with 
fuzz,  which  is  often  of  a  brownish  tint.  The  plants  are  of  medium 
size,  abundantly  supplied  with  branches.  The  percentage  of  lint 
is  high,  the  size  of  bolls  small,  and  the  size  of  seed  very  small. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  widely  grown  varieties  and  is  usually 
satisfactory  in  yield.  As  regards  maturity,  it  is  medium  to 
late. 

Layton.  —  This  variety  is  similar  to  Peterkin  except  in  having 
a  smaller  proportion  of  naked  seeds  and  a  thicker  covering  of 
grayish  fuzz  on  most  of  its  seeds.  In  several  recent  tests  at 
Experiment  Stations  it  has  afforded  a  larger  yield  of  lint  per  acre 
than  Peterkin. 

Toole.  —  This  variety  bears  many  points  of  resemblance  to 
Peterkin  and  some  resemblance  to  King.  It  is  earlier  and 
usually  somewhat  more  productive  of  lint  than  Peterkin.  The 
plant  is  of  medium  to  small  size  and  well  suited  to  intensive  fer- 
tilization (Fig.  141).  It  is  one  of  the  few  varieties  which  gener- 
ally in  recent  years  have  stood  near  the  top  of  the  list  in  produc- 
tiveness in  most  of  the  Experiment  Stations  where  it  has  been 


COTTON   VARIETIES 


297 


tested.     Its  chief  weakness  is  the  small  size  of  the  bolls.     The 
percentage  of  lint  is  high  and  the  size  of  seed  small. 

King.  —  This  variety,  like  all  the  others  of  the  same  group, 
is  distinguished  by  its  extreme  earliness,  by  the  small  size  of  the 


FIG.  141.  —  A  PRODUCTIVE  COTTON  PLANT  OF  THE  TOOLE  VARIETY. 

plant,  and  by  the  occurrence  in  some  blooms  of  red  spots  near 
the  base  of  each  petal.  Near  the  northern  edge  of  the  cotton- 
belt  this  is  one  of  the  most  prolific  varieties,  but  elsewhere  it  is 
usually  surpassed  in  yield  of  lint  by  later  cottons.  The  chief 
objections  to  this  variety  are  the  readiness  with  which  the  seed 
cotton  falls  from  the  bur  to  the  ground  and  the  small  size  of  bolls. 
Russell.  —  This  is  one  of  the  most  widely  grown  varieties  in 


298  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

the  central  and  southern  parts  of  the  cotton-belt.  It  is  a  big- 
boll  cotton  with  very  large  leaves.  It  is  characterized  by  the 
green  color  of  most  of  its  seed. 

The  bolls  are  large  and  do  not  readily  drop  the  seed  cotton. 
The  seeds  are  large  and  the  percentage  of  lint  is  low.  The  yield 
of  lint  per  acre  is  usually  satisfactory,  but  not  exceptional.  This 
variety  is  late  and  therefore,  in  the  presence  of  the  boll-weevil, 
likely  to  decline  in  popularity. 

Truitt.  —  This  is  a  typical  big-boll  variety  with  many  of  the 
plants  assuming  the  semicluster  form.  The  seeds  are  large  and 
usually  covered  with  grayish  fuzz.  Truitt  is  widely  grown. 

Triumph.  —  This  variety  was  developed  in  the  southern  part 
of  Texas  from  a  cotton  of  the  storm-proof  group.  Its  special 
claim  to  prominence  is  its  earliness  combined  with  the  large  size 
of  boll.  This  variety  is  very  popular  in  Texas  in  the  presence  of 
the  boll-weevil  and  has  given  general  satisfaction  to  farmers  east 
of  the  Mississippi  River,  where,  however,  its  percentage  of  lint 
seems  to  be  lower  than  nearer  its  place  of  origin.  This  variety 
combines  a  number  of  good  qualities,  namely  relative  earliness, 
large  size  of  boll,  and  at  least  fair  productiveness. 

Cleveland.  —  This  is  a  big-boll  variety,  though  scarcely  typical 
of  that  group,  nor  are  the  plants  entirely  uniform.  Its  special 
points  of  merit  are  the  very  high  rank  in  yield  of  lint  per  acre 
which  it  has  taken  in  most  of  the  Experiment  Stations  where  it 
has  been  tested,  and  its  earliness,  which  is  greater  than  that  of 
most  big-boll  varieties.  Its  worst  fault  is  the  tendency  of  the 
seed  cotton  to  fall  from  the  bur.  It  appears  to  be  promising  for 
boll-weevil  conditions. 

Cook  Improved.  —  The  bolls  of  this  variety  are  barely  large 
enough  to  place  it  in  the  big-boll  class.  The  plants  are  somewhat 
variable  in  form  and  appearance.  The  special  merits  of  this 
variety  are  its  earliness,  its  high  percentage  of  lint,  and  the 
very  high  rank  in  yield  of  lint  per  acre  which  it  has  taken  in  most 
tests  at  the  Experiment  Stations.  Its  greatest  fault  is  its  special 
tendency  to  be  injured  by  cotton  boll-rot  (anthracnose).  A  less 
notable  fault  is  its  lack  of  storm-resistance.  The  seed  are  small 
and  rather  thinly  covered  with  a  grayish  fuzz. 


COTTON    VARIETIES  299 

Allen  Long-staple.  —  The  plant  is  tall  with  long,  rather  upright 
base  limbs ;  the  appearance  is  often  that  of  a  semicluster  plant. 
The  bolls  are  small,  rather  long  and  slender.  The  lint  is  long  and 
fine,  but  the  percentage  is  low.  The  seeds  are  covered  with  white 
fuzz.  This  is  a  standard  variety  in  the  Mississippi  Delta. 

Griffin.  —  This  long-staple  variety  differs  from  many  others  of 
the  same  class  in  having  larger  bolls  and  somewhat  longer  limbs. 
However,  the  lint  is  weak. 

Blue  Ribbon.  —  This  is  a  long-staple  variety  originated  at  the 
South  Carolina  Experiment  Station  and  adapted  to  the  northern 
and  central  portions  of  the  cotton-belt.  The  length  of  staple 
is  not  equal  to  that  in  the  Allen  variety.  The  plant  is  of  the 
semicluster  shape.  The  percentage  of  lint  is  somewhat  above 
that  of  most  long-staple  varieties.  The  greatest  weakness  of  the 
Blue  Ribbon  is  its  susceptibility  to  boll-rot. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

1.  Write  descriptions  of  at  least  five  varieties  of  cotton,  if 
available,  noting  especially  shape  of  plant,  size  and  shape  of 
bolls,  relative  earliness,  and  colors  of  seed. 

2.  Ascertain  the  opinions  of  several  farmers  as  to  which  varie- 
ties are  thought  to  make  the  largest  yields  of  lint  in  the  locality 
of  the  school  or  near  the  pupil's  home,  and  report  in  writing. 

3.  Students  in  advanced  classes  should  make  a  detailed  study 
of  an  additional  number  of  varieties ;   and  of  the  records  of  va- 
rieties as  tested  at  their  State  Experiment  Station. 

LITERATURE 

DUGGAE,  J.  F.     Ala.  Expr.  Sta.,  Buls.  Nos.  107  and  140. 

HARPER,  J.  N.     S.  C.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  123. 

MAcNiDER,  G.  M.,  and  others.     N.  C.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bull.  Feb., 

1909,  pp.  37-63. 

NEWMAN,  C.  L.     S.  C.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  140. 
TRACY,  S.  M.    U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  33,  pp. 

197-224. 
TYLER,  F.  K.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Plant  Ind.,  Bui.  No.  163. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
COTTON  BREEDING 

AN  important  part  of  crop-growing  is  to  maintain  the 
excellence  of  types  and  varieties,  and  to  improve  the  plants 
by  constant  attention  to  approved  methods  of  breeding. 
Cotton  is  no  exception  to  this  rule. 

266.  Deterioration  of  cotton  is  easy.  —  A  large  propor- 
tion of  the  farmers  of  the  cotton-belt  plant  impure,  mixed, 
and  otherwise  inferior  cotton  seed.  Even  where  a  start  is 
made  with  a  pure  variety  the  cotton  usually  "  runs  out," 
or  deteriorates,  in  a  few  years.  This  is  not  because  soil  or 
climate  is  unfavorable ;  the  depreciation  in  productiveness 
and  quality  is  generally  due  to  one  or  more  of  the  following 
reasons :  — 

(1)  Failure  to  select  plants  as  carefully  for  seed  as  did 
the  person  who  originated  or  improved  the  variety ; 

(2)  Mixing  of  the  seed  at  public  gins  with  inferior  seed ; 

(3)  Cross-pollination  by  insects  bringing  pollen  from 
inferior  varieties  or  from  unimproved  (scrub)  cotton ; 

(4)  The  planting  of  seed  obtained  in  the  last  picking, 
many  of  which  are  immature,  light  and  defective,  or  from 
late,  poor  plants. 

Nowhere  in  the  cotton-belt  is  there  any  necessity  for 
short-staple  cotton  to  deteriorate.  If  it  does  become  less 
valuable,  the  cause  will  be  found  in  want  of  due  care  to 
secure  good  seed  for  planting. 

300 


COTTON  BREEDING  301 

267.  Improvement  of  cotton  seed  profitable.  —  A  study 
of  the  results  of  any  tests  of  varieties  of  cotton  reveals  a 
wide  difference  between  the  yields  of  the  most  productive 
varieties  and  of  the  least  productive.    The  difference  is  even 
greater  between  common  or  unimproved  cotton  and  the  best 
varieties.     It  is  probably  safe  to  estimate  that  a  suitable 
improved  variety  will,  as  a  rule,  yield  at  least  20  per  cent 
more  lint  per  acre  than  will  unimproved  or  scrub  cotton. 

268.  Crossing  vs.  selection  as  a  means  of  improving  cot- 
ton. —  In  improving  cotton  or  any  other  plant,  reliance 
is  placed  on  selection  or  on  hybridizing,  or  on  a  combina- 
tion of  both  of  these  processes.     Selection  attains  the  quick- 
est results,  especially  if  a  beginning  be  made  with  an  es- 
tablished variety.     Selection  is  the  only  process  that  farm- 
ers, as  a  rule,  need  to  practice. 

Crossing  of  two  widely  different  individuals  or  varieties 
is  sometimes  performed  in  the  hope  of  uniting  in  the  off- 
spring the  good  qualities  of  both.  The  chances  are  much 
against  securing  this  desired  combination  in  the  majority 
of  the  plants  of  the  progeny ;  even  when  the  combination 
is  secured  in  one  plant,  it  is  not  inherited  by  the  majority 
of  its  offspring. 

After  a  cross  is  made,  the  plants  grown  from  such  crossed 
seed  must  be  carefully  selected  for  a  number  of  years 
before  there  is  much  uniformity  between  the  different 
plants.  One  need  scarcely  expect  the  type  to  become  well 
fixed  in  less  than  five  years  after  making  the  cross.  There- 
fore, crossing  is  scarcely  practicable  for  most  farmers; 
but  it  can  be  used  to  a  limited  extent  by  a  plant-breeder, 
that  is,  by  one  who  devotes  a  large  proportion  of  his  time 
to  the  improvement  of  plants. 


302  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

269.  Directions  for  crossing  cotton.  —  Near  sunset  the 
pollen-cases  (anthers)  are  removed  from  large  flower-buds 
that  would  open  the  next  morning.  The  removal  of  the 
anthers  is  most  conveniently  done  by  cutting  away  the 
greater  part  of  every  petal,  and  then  carefully  removing 
every  anther,  either  with  a  small  pair  of  pincers,  a  small 
pair  of  scissors,  or  with  the  blade  of  a  pocket  knife,  taking 
care  not  to  bruise  the  pistil  around  which  the  stamens 
grow.  The  anthers  when  removed  are  still  closed;  if 
any  have  begun  to  drop  their  pollen,  the  bud  is  too  far 
advanced  for  crossing.  As  soon  as  the  anthers  are  taken 
out,  a  small  paper  bag  is  pinned  or  tied  over  the  mutilated 
flower  to  keep  insects  from  bringing  to  the  stigma  the  pollen 
from  some  unknown  cotton  plant. 

Next,  choose  the  plant  that  is  to  furnish  the  pollen,  and 
over  its  buds,  nearly  ready  to  open,  tie  a  paper  bag  to  ex- 
clude insect  visitors.  The  next  morning,  usually  about 
nine  o'clock,  the  stigma  on  the  mutilated  flower  will  be 
ready  to  receive  the  pollen  from  the  chosen  sire  plant. 
This  readiness  will  be  shown  by  the  stickiness  of  the  upper 
portion  of  the  pistil,  that  is,  the  stigmas.  At  about  the 
same  time  that  the  stigmas  become  receptive,  the  anthers 
in  other  flowers  will  have  begun  to  burst,  setting  free  their 
pollen. 

There  are  several  methods  of  placing  the  pollen  on  the 
flower  from  which  the  anthers  have  been  removed.  One 
way  consists  in  simply  pulling  the  entire  flower  bearing 
the  pollen,  and  rubbing  its  anthers  lightly  over  the  stigmas 
of  the  mutilated  bloom,  until  some  of  the  grains  of  pollen 
are  seen  to  adhere  to  all  sides  of  the  pistil.  Then  the  paper 
bag  is  again  placed  in  position,  to  be  left  over  the  muti- 


COTTON  BREEDING 


303 


lated  flower  for 
about  five 
days,  or  until 
a  young  boll 
has  developed. 
This  boll  must 
be  carefully 
labeled  by 
means  of  a 
small  tag,  so 
that  at  har- 
vest time  the 
crossed  boll 
may  be  distin- 
guished from 
others. 

270.  Varia- 
tion and  selec- 
tion.  — The 
different  indi- 
vidual plants 
within  a  single 
variety  differ 
considerably 
(Figs.  142  and 
143).  Still 
greater  is  the 

divergence  between  individual  plants  of  unimproved 
cotton.  This  tendency  to  vary  makes  constant  improve- 
ment possible.  For  as  long  as  a  few  plants  are  distinctly 
superior  in  any  quality  to  the  majority  of  plants,  there 


FIG.  142.  —  A  PRODUCTIVE  COTTON  PLANT. 


304 


SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 


is  the  possibility  of  bringing  the  average  much  nearer  to 

the  standard  of  the  best  plants. 

It  is  highly  desirable  that  any  pure  variety  of  cotton 

should  possess 
the  maximum  de- 
gree of  uniform- 
ity among  the  in- 
dividual plants. 
This  uniformity 
is  much  more 
quickly  and  com- 
pletely secured 
by  beginning 
with  a  variety 
already  consid- 
ered as  pure. 
Hence  any  per- 
son desiring  to 
improve  cotton 
should  first  of  all 
become  familiar 
with  the  best 
varieties,  and 
among  these  he 
should  choose 
for  improvement 
that  one  which 
possesses  the 
greatest  number 

of  qualities  desired  and  on  which  the  fewest  new  qualities 

need  to  be  engrafted. 


FIG.  143.  —  AN  UNPRODUCTIVE  COTTON  PLANT. 


COTTON  BREEDING  305 

271.  The  simplest  method  of  selection.  —  The  follow- 
ing method  of  selection  is  recommended  as  practicable  for 
most  farmers  who  cannot  afford  to  devote  much  attention 
to  cotton  breeding,  but  who  desire  to  maintain  or  slowly 
improve  the 'purity  and  excellence  of  any  good  variety :  — 

At  the  first  or  second  picking,  let  one  of  the  most  care- 
ful of  the  pickers  precede  the  others  and  pick  into  one  bag 
the  seed  cotton  from  the  best  plants. 

The  plants  chosen  by  this  picker  must  be  very  productive, 
and  they  should  possess  in  addition  the  other  qualities 
desired;  —  for  example,  earliness  and  a  certain  size  of  boll. 
Moreover,  all  plants  chosen  for  seed  should  be  uniform  in 
the  appearance  of  the  plant  and  in  the  other  qualities 
desired.  Thus,  in  a  big-boll  variety,  every  plant  having 
medium  or  small  bolls  should  be  rejected,  no  matter  how 
numerous  the  bolls  may  be.  Likewise  in  selecting  seed  of 
a  semicluster  variety,  no  bolls  from  a  long-limbed  plant, 
howsoever  productive,  should  be  picked  into  the  sack 
intended  for  seed. 

272.  Principal  qualities  desired  in  the  plant.  —  A  care- 
ful person  engaged  in  selecting  cotton  soon  becomes  so 
expert  that,  as  he  walks  along  the  row,  he  can  detect  at  a 
glance  the  most  promising  plants.     Then  he  should  make  a 
hasty  decision  as  to  whether  each  productive  plant  com- 
bines the  following  important  points :  — 

(1)  Desired  size  of  bolls ; 

(2)  A  large  number  of  bolls ; 

(3)  The  desired  degree  of  earliness ; 

(4)  The  shape  of  plant  characteristic  of  that  variety ;  and 

(5)  Freedom  from  disease,  such  as  boll-rot,  rust,  and 
cotton  wilt. 


306  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

Each  farmer  should  decide  for  himself  whether  it  is 
practicable  for  him,  in  selecting  cotton,  to  consider  other 
qualities  not  so  readily  detected,  such  as  length  of  lint 
and  proportion  of  five-lock  bolls. 

273.  Defects  in  bolls.  —  In  selecting  seed  for  planting, 
either  by  the  simple  method  now  under  discussion  or  by  a 
more  careful  method  to  be  described  later,  no  boll  should 
be  picked  for  seed  that  has  any  of  the  following  defects :  — 

(1)  Spots  on  the  hull  or  bur,  due  to  disease; 

(2)  Any  imperfectly  developed  lock,  or  any  lock  not 
fully  open;  and 

(3)  Diminutive  size  of  boll. 

A  boll  with  disease  spots  or  with  a  defective  lock  is  apt 
to  convey  the  germs  of  disease  to  the  next  crop. 

274.  The   seed-patch.  —  The   cotton  picked    for  seed 
from  the  best  plants  as  directed  above  should  be  carefully 
ginned,  taking  care  to  avoid  any  mixing  at  the  gin.     The 
next  season  the  selected  seed  thus  obtained  should  be 
planted  thinly  in  a  seed-patch  having  uniform  soil  and 
separated,  if  possible,  by  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  any  other 
cotton. 

Each  year  a  similar  seed-patch  should  be  planted  with 
seed  selected  from  the  best  plants  of  the  preceding  year's 
seed-patch.  The  remaining  seed,  after  the  best  plants  have 
been  picked  over  once,  will  usually  suffice  to  plant  the  en- 
tire farm. 

The  method  of  selection  described  in  the  last  few  para- 
graphs is  practicable  on  almost  any  farm,  whether  large  or 
small.  However,  this  method  alone  will  serve  rather  to 
maintain  established  excellence  than  to  afford  any  notable 
and  rapid  improvement  in  the  variety,  which  must  be 


COTTON  BREEDING  307 

effected  by  the  more  painstaking  method  described  in 
paragraph  278. 

275.  Qualities    needing    improvement.  —  Selection    or 
breeding  is  capable  of  improving  the  cotton  plant  in  every 
desirable  quality.     Among  those  directions  in  which  im- 
provement should  be  sought  are  the  following :  — 

(1)  Increase  in  the  yield  of  lint ; 

(2)  Increased  earliness; 

(3)  Increase  in  size  of  boll ; 

(4)  Greater  length  of  lint ; 

(5)  More  uniformity  in  the  length  of  lint ; 

(6)  Improvement  in  the  form  of  plant  or  method  of 
branching ; 

(7)  Increase  in  the  percentage  of  lint  of  some  varieties ; 
and 

(8)  Greater  resistance  to  diseases. 

276.  Some  antagonistic  qualities.  —  Some  of  the  quali- 
ties just  mentioned  tend  to  exclude  other  desirable  ones. 
The  following  pairs  of  qualities  are  generally  antagonistic ; 
that  is,  rarely,  if  ever,  found  in  the  same  individual  plant : — 

(1)  Extreme  earliness  is  opposed  to  extremely  large 
bolls. 

(2)  Extreme  earliness  is  usually  not  associated  with  the 
highest  yields  of  lint,  except  when  the  fruiting  season  is 
shortened  by  early  frost  or  by  the  presence  of  the  boll- 
weevil. 

(3)  Great  length  of  lint  excludes  the  probability  of  a 
high  percentage  of  lint. 

(4)  A  high  percentage  of  lint  is  seldom  found  in  varieties 
or  strains  having  large  seeds. 

As  a  rule,  any  progress  in  improving  one  of  these  characters 


308  SOUTHERN   FIELD   CROPS  • 

results  in  a  decrease  in  its  antagonistic  quality.  However, 
an  occasional  single  plant  may  constitute  an  exception, 
and  combine,  to  a  certain  extent,  these  opposing  qualities. 
Such  exceptional  plants  are  exactly  those  that  the  plant- 
breeder  is  seeking  to  evolve  or  to  discover,  and  then  to 
perpetuate  in  their  purity. 

Although  certain  pairs  of  desirable  qualities  are  antago- 
nistic, yet  the  cotton  plant  has  many  useful  characters  that 
can  readily  be  improved  together  without  mutual  injury. 

277.  Breeding  for  a  small  number  of  qualities.  —  The 
most  rapid  improvement  in  any  character  is  secured  when 
plants  are  selected  for  seed  with  chief  reference  to  a  very 
small  number  of  desirable  qualities.  For  example,  if  an 
increased  size  of  boll  is  the  only  point  aimed  at,  any  given 
field  will  contain  more  plants  filling  this  requirement  than 
plants  answering  the  needs  of  a  man  who  wishes  a  combina- 
tion in  the  same  plant  of  three  qualities,  such  as  large 
size  of  boll,  small  seed,  and  long  lint. 

Therefore,  it  is  wise  to  make  one  quality  the  leading  one, 
so  that  every  plant  selected  shall  possess  this  to  a  high 
degree ;  but  there  should  also  be  in  mind  several  secondary 
qualities,  which  the  selected  plants  should  possess,  to  at 
least  a  moderate  degree. 

The  important  practical  lesson  from  the  above  principle 
is  to  continue  selection  year  after  year  with  the  same  chief 
object  in  mind  until  that  end  is  attained.  Do  not  select 
one  year  chiefly  for  size  of  boll  and  the  next  year  mainly 
for  length  of  lint;  but  keep  the  same  aim  and  desired 
quality  in  mind  from  year  to  year.  After  this  character 
is  fixed,  it  is  time  enough  to  take  another  one  as  the  prin- 
cipal object  through  another  series  of  years. 


COTTON  BREEDING  309 

From  all  of  the  above  it  follows  that  it  is  important  to 
start  with  a  pure  variety  that  already  possesses  most  of  the 
qualities  desired. 

278.  Plant-breeders'  methods  of  improving  cotton.  — 
In  order  to  make  very  great  or  very  rapid  improvement  in  a 
variety  or  strain  of  cotton,  it  is  necessary  to  practice  a 
method  requiring  much  more  time  and  pains  than  can  be 
spared  by  any  except  the  few  men  who  make  a  specialty 
of  plant-breeding.  This  method  is  called  the  "  plant-to- 
row  method."  It  is  based  on  the  fact  that  plants  may  be 
excellent  by  reason  of  either  :  — 

(1)  Favorable  surroundings  (environment),  or  by 

(2)  Their  inherent,  or  self-contained,  excellence. 
Superiority  due  merely  to  favorable  environment,  such  as  an 

extra  share  of  fertilizer,  abundant  space,  and  other  advan- 
tages, is  not  hereditary;  but  inherent  excellence  is  heredi- 
tary. It  is  usually  difficult  or  impossible  to  determine 
whether  the  superiority  of  a  selected  plant  is  accidental 
(due  to  favorable  environment)  or  inherent.  This  ques- 
tion remains  unsettled  whenever  seed  from  a  number  of 
plants  are  planted  together,  as  in  the  simplest  method  of 
selection  before  described. 

But  by  keeping  the  seed  of  each  plant  separate,  and 
planting  each  on  a  separate  row,  the  next  year  the  parent 
plant  of  inherent  or  inheritable  excellence  is  readily  de- 
termined. For  its  offspring  almost  uniformly  show  the 
desired  quality;  while  a  row  grown  from  a  parent  plant 
that  was  productive  merely  because  of  favorable  envi- 
ronment does  not  show  the  good  qualities  of  the  parent. 
Hence,  selection  must  be  made  thereafter  only  from 
those  rows  on  which  the  plants  exhibit  the  proof  of  having 


310  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 

inherited  the  good  quality  of  their  parent  plant,  this  fact 
creating  the  presumption  that  they  also  are  prepotent, 
or  able  to  transmit  their  good  qualities  to  the  next  genera- 
tion. 

Details  of  the  plant-to-row  method  of  cotton  breeding.  —  In  the 
best  field  of  the  desired  variety  select  each  year  100  plants,  or  as 
many  as  can  well  be  separately  ginned  and  planted.  Place  a 
tag  bearing  a  number  on  each  selected  plant  before  picking.  On 
a  large,  strong,  paper  bag  write  a  similar  number.  Whenever  a 
picking  is  made  place  the  seed  cotton  from  Plant  No.  1  in  Bag 
No.  1,  and  so  on  for  each  selected  plant.  After  weighing  the  seed 
cotton  from  each  plant,  reject  those  that  are  far  below  the  average 
productiveness.  For  accurate  work  it  is  desirable  to  gin  the  seed 
cotton  of  each  plant  separately,  which  is  best  done  in  a  specially 
constructed  very  small  gin. 

If  ginning  is  not  practicable,  selection  must  be  made  among  the 
picked  plants  merely  on  the  basis  of  the  weight  of  seed  cotton ; 
in  this  case  the  unginned  cotton  may  be  planted  in  hills  at  uni- 
form distances  apart,  a  lock  or  half  a  lock  in  a  hill.  When 
thus  planted  extreme  care  must  be  taken  to  pack  the  moist  soil 
over  each  piece  of  seed  cotton,  otherwise  the  stand  will  be 
poor. 

In  the  fall,  first  select  the  best  plants  on  what  seem  to  be  the 
best  rows,  and  then  weigh  the  remainder  of  the  crop  on  each  row 
separately,  so  as  to  determine  which  rows  are  really  the  best,  as 
shown  by  the  total  yields. 

The  second  year,  plant  on  very  uniform  land  a  similar  planth 
to-row  patch,  usually  containing  20  to  100  rows,  each  planted  with 
the  seed  of  one  of  the  best  plants  from  the  few  best  rows  of  the 
year  before.  Make  all  rows  of  uniform  width  and  plant  the  field 
in  checks,  so  that  every  plant  may  have  exactly  the  same  amount 
of  space.  The  breeding-patch  should  always  be  on  uniform  land 
and  removed  as  far  as  possible  from  any  other  kind  of  cotton,  so 
as  to  avoid  cross-fertilization. 

The  following  diagram  (Fig.  144)  shows  the  steps  from  year  to 
year : — 


COTTON  BREEDING  311 


£--* — x- x *-*• 


/7 


*-  -X-  X- *  -X * -X-K-* *- *- 


FIG.  144.  —  DIAGRAM  SHOWING  A  BREEDING-PLOT  OF  TWENTY  Rows 
OF  COTTON. 

The  best  plants  (x,  x~)  are  selected  on  the  best  rows  (Nos.  5  and  16)  for 
planting  the  next  year's  breeding-plot  of  cotton. 

Each  horizontal  line  represents  a  row  in  the  plant-to-row  test 
each  year.  An  "x"  represents  a  selected  plant  on  one  of  the 
best  rows.  Each  plant-to-row  patch  is  planted  with  seed  from 
these  best  individuals,  the  seed  of  each  plant  occupying  a  sepa- 
rate row. 

The  next  diagram-  (Fig.  145)  shows  the  possibility  of  obtaining 
in  three  or  four  years  from  a  single  original  plant  enough  seed  to 
plant  an  entire  farm. 

279.  Plant-breeding  a  specialty.  —  Most  farmers  can 
practice  the  simple  method  of  selection  first  described,  but 
few  will  be  able  to  give  the  time  and  pains  to  careful  work 
with  the  plant-to-row  method.  Yet  so  much  superior 
to  average  seed  of  even  the  purest  varieties  are  seed  pro- 
duced by  the  plant-to-row  method  that  farmers  can  better 
afford  to  pay  a  fancy  price  for  small  amounts  of  seed  thus 
improved  than  to  plant  ordinary  seed.  Undoubtedly 
in  the  future  the  tendency  will  be  for  plant-breeding  to 
become  a  business  or  a  profession  requiring  the  entire 


312 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


time  of  painstaking,  trained  men,  from  whom  farmers  will 
find  it  more  profitable  to  buy  pedigreed  seed  than  to 


1ST  YEAR         2oYEAR         3oYEAR          4THYEAR         5™  YEAR 

SELECT  PLANT 

SELECT  PLANT ( I 


SELECT  PLANT  (  1 


SELECT  PLANT 


SEUCT  PtANTf  1 


FIG.  145. — DIAGRAM  SHOWING  METHOD  or  SELECTING  COTTON. 

attempt  elaborate  plant-breeding  in  connection  with  ordi- 
nary farm  work. 

280.  Size  of  seed  for  planting.  —  Several  experiments 
have  shown  that  by  separating  and  planting  only  the 
heavy  seed,  the  percentage  of  germination  is  notably 
increased.  A  better  stand  results  and  a  larger  yield  is 
sometimes  obtained. 

It  does  not  follow  that  because  the  largest  seed  within  a  given 
variety  are  superior  to  the  smaller  seed,  that  variety  is  best  which 
has  the  largest  seed.  Indeed  the  opposite  is  often  true;  the 
high  percentage  of  lint  that  is  frequently  found  in  varieties  with 
small  seed  often  makes  them  more  productive  of  lint  than  varie- 
ties with  large  seed. 


COTTON  BREEDING  313 

Methods  of  separating  large  and  small  or  heavy  and  light  seed.  — 
As  cotton  seed  come  from  the  gin,  covered  with  a  coat  of  fuzz, 
they  tend  to  cling  together  in  masses.  This  renders  it  difficult, 
without  previous  treatment  of  the  seed,  to  separate  the  largest 
from  the  others. 

Webber  and  Boy  kin  recommend  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmer's 
Bui.  No.  285)  the  following  treatment  of  the  seed :  A  thin  flour 
paste  is  poured  on  the  seed,  which  are  then  stirred  or  otherwise 
agitated  until  every  seed  is  covered.  The  fuzz  is  thus  pasted 
down  to  the  hull.  After  drying,  the  seed  are  in  condition  to  be 
easily  separated  in  a  fanning  machine  especially  constructed  so  as 
to  blow  out  the  lighter  seed.  Those  which  have  been  treated 
with  paste  can  be  planted  more  thinly  than  otherwise,  which  is  an 
advantage  in  the  subsequent  thinnfng  of  the  plant. 

The  delinting  of  the  seed,  which  consists  in  reginning  them,  as 
is  commonly  done  by  oil  mills,  also  makes  it  somewhat  easier  to 
separate  the  individual  seeds. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

1.  If  practicable,  make  a  number  of  crosses,  preferably  among 
varieties  having  easily  recognizable  features ;    pupils  who  are  es- 
pecially interested  may  wish  to  plant  the  resulting  seeds  and  to 
note  the  diversity  among  the  plants. 

2.  Students  should  copy  the  score-card  below  and  by  its  aid 
score  the  plants,  —  preferably  by  pairs,  —  of  several  varieties. 
This  exercise  needs  frequent  repetition,  not  so  much  to  familiarize 
the    pupils    with  the  score-card   (which   may  be    considerably 
modified  for  special  objects),  but  for  the  purpose  (1)  of  directing 
more  careful  attention  to   the  characteristics  of  the  different 
varieties  or  strains,  and  (2)  to  train  the  eye  and  the  mind  to  the 
prompt  recognition  of  the  defects  and  valuable  characteristics  of 
any  cotton  plant  observed. 

SCORE-CARD  FOR  COTTON 

The  following  is  the  score-card  devised  for  the  use  of 
students  of  the  Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute :  — 


314  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

FORM,  short-jointed,  well-branched,  indicating  fruitfulness   .     15 
YIELD  (standard  1  bale  or  more  per  acre) : 

(a)  Size  of  bolls  (standard  40  per  pound;    1  point  de- 
ducted for  each  additional  5  bolls  required  per  pound 

of  seed  cotton) 15 

(6)  Per  cent  lint  (standard  40  per  cent  for  short-staple 
varieties ;  32  per  cent  for  long-staple ;  1  point  cut 

for  each  1  per  cent  below  standard) 10 

(c)  Number  of  mature  bolls  per  plant 15 

(Standard,  unfavorable  conditions     ....       20) 
(Standard,  medium  conditions       .....       60) 

(Standard  good  conditions        100) 

Total  yield  (a  and  b  and  c)  \  or  weighed  yield  seed  cotton 
times  average  per  cent  lint  of  that  variety    ...   40 
EARLINESS  (standard  being  the  earliest  plants  of  King)  .     .     10 

HARDINESS  of  plant  towards  disease 3 

STORM  RESISTANCE 2 

COMPLETENESS  OF  OPENING  and  ease  of  picking      ....       2 
LINT 

Length  of  lint  (standard,  upland,  1  to  \%  inches;    long 

staple,  \y2  inches) 8 

Uniformity  in  length  of  fibers  on  same  seed 8 

Strength 3 

Fineness 3 

Color 2 

Maturity 2 

UNIFORMITY  OF  SEED  in  size,  color,  etc 2 

Total 100 

LITERATURE 

WEBBER,   H.  J.     Improvement  of  Cotton  by   Seed  Selection. 

U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1902,  pp.  365-389. 
WEBBER,  H.  J.,  and  BOYKIN.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmer's  Bui. 

No.  285. 
BENNETT,  R.  L.    Breeding  an  Early  Cotton.     Tex.  Expr.  Sta., 

Bui.  No.  79. 
Proceedings  American  Breeders'  Association. 


CHAPTER   XIX 
COTTON  — SOILS   AND   FERTILIZERS 

COTTON  is  a  most  adaptable  crop.  Almost  any  land  in 
the  cotton-belt  —  from  light  sandy  to  stiff  clay  —  will 
produce  a  crop,  provided  it  be  well  drained,  and,  if  poor, 
supplied  with  the  necessary  kind  and  amount  of  fertilizing 
materials. 

281.  Soil  range.  —  A  large  proportion  of  the  American 
cotton  crop  grows  on  land  too  sandy,  dry,  and  poor  to  be 
thoroughly  satisfactory  for  corn.     Indeed,  a  large  area  of 
cotton  grows  on  land  too  poor  to  yield  a  profit  even  from 
cotton.     These  unprofitable  areas,  these  "  robber  acres," 
are  the  source  of  much  loss  to  cotton  farmers.     They 
could  be  more  advantageously  devoted  to  pasture  or  to 
leguminous  plants.     On  sandy  land  the  plant  is  much  more 
subject  to  injury  from  cotton  rust  than  on  loamy  or  clay 
soils. 

On  some  very  rich,  moist,  bottom  land,  cotton  makes 
a  stalk  of  excessive  size  without  a  corresponding  develop- 
ment of  fruit.  Therefore,  such  lands  are  not  favorable 
for  cotton,  but  may  be  more  advantageously  devoted  to 
the  production  of  corn,  hay,  or  pasturage. 

GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS  ON  FERTILIZING  COTTON 

282.  Draft  of  cotton  on  soil  fertility.  — The  table  in  para- 
graph 246  showed  that  in  certain  experiments  the  seed  and 
lint  together  contained  about  half  the  total  nitrogen  and 

315 


316 


SOUTHEBN  FIELD   CROPS 


FIG.  146.  —  COTTON  PLANTS. 

Showing  retention  of  leaves  on  the  right,  due  to  vegetable  matter- 
and  shedding  of  leaves  on  the  left,  where  there  was  less  vegetable  matter 
in  the  soil. 


COTTON  FERTILIZERS  317 

phosphoric  acid  but  only  a  quarter  of  the  potash  found 
in  the  entire  plant.  The  composition  of  a  plant  or  of  the 
part  removed  from  the  soil  is  not  a  guide  to  the  correct 
fertilization  of  that  plant ;  yet  it  is  well  to  know  that  the 
lint  and  seed  together  in  a  crop  of  300  pounds  of  lint  re- 
moved plant-food  which  at  ordinary  prices  would  be 
worth  in  commercial  fertilizers  about  $3.75.  Of  this 
amount,  the  fertilizer  constituents  in  the  lint  alone  are 
worth  only  25  to  30  cents.  Indeed,  no  other  ordinary 
crop  makes  such  slight  demands  on  fertility  as  does  the 
cotton  fiber.  If  the  seed  and  all  other  parts  of  the  plant 
except  the  lint  were  returned  to  the  soil,  there  would  be 
no  reductions  in  fertility  except  those  due  to  extraneous 
influences,  such  as  surface  washing,  loss  of  vegetable 
matter  (Fig.  146)  through  clean  cultivation,  and  loss  of 
nitrates  from  the  soil  in  the  drainage  water. 

The  seed  and  lint  together,  in  the  case  of  a  crop  of  300 
pounds  of  lint,  make  a  draft  on  soil  fertility  that  is  about 
the  same  as  would  be  removed  by  the  grain  alone  in  a  crop 
of  25  bushels  of  corn  or  of  35  bushels  of  oats. 

283.  Amounts  of  fertilizer  required  to  take  the  place  of 
plant-food  removed  by  lint  and  seed.  —  Three  hundred 
pounds  of  cotton-seed  meal  and  twenty-seven  pounds 
of  kainit  would  furnish  all  the  fertilizer  constituents  re- 
moved from  the  soil  by  a  crop  of  300  pounds  of  lint  with 
its  accompanying  seed;  this  quantity  of  cotton-seed 
meal  would  supply  not  only  the  nitrogen,  but  all  of  the 
necessary  phosphoric  acid.  If  the  nitrogen  were  drawn 
wholly  from  the  decay  of  leguminous  plants  and  no  cotton- 
seed meal  were  applied,  51  pounds  of  acid  phosphate,  con- 
taining 14  per  cent  of  available  phosphoric  acid,  would 


318  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

supply  all  the  phosphoric  acid  removed  in  a  crop  of  seed 
and  lint  of  the  size  indicated. 

In  fact,  such  figures  give  no  idea  of  the  amounts  and 
kinds  of  fertilizer  actually  found  to  be  advantageous  for 
the  cotton  plant.  For  example,  in  practice  the  usual 
amount  of  acid  phosphate  is  at  least  120  to  200  pounds  per 
acre,  which  supplies  several  times  the  amount  of  phos- 
phoric acid  removed  by  seed  and  lint  in  a  crop  yielding  300 
pounds  of  lint.  The  necessity  for  applying  much  larger 
amounts  of  phosphoric  acid  than  apparently  required  by 
the  composition  of  the  cotton  plant  is  largely  due  to  the 
fact  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  phosphoric  acid  is  con- 
verted in  the  soil  into  compounds  that  are  not  promptly 
available. 

Means  of  determining  the  fertilizer  required  by  cotton 
on  different  soils  are  discussed  in  succeeding  paragraphs. 

284.  Phosphoric  acid.  —  There  are  no  indications  either 
from  the  appearance  of  the  soil  or  from  the  appearance 
of  the  plant  as  to  whether  phosphoric  acid  is  needed. 
However,  in  regions  where  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers 
for  cotton  is  general,  experiments  and  experience  have 
indicated  that  the  need  for  the  application  of  phosphates 
is  almost  universal.     Usually  a  fertilizer  for  cotton  should 
contain  more  acid  phosphate  than  any  other  single  chem- 
ical fertilizer. 

285.  Potash.  —  In  determining  the  probable  require- 
ment of  cotton  for  potash,  note  should  be  made  of  the 
proportion  of  clay  or  silt  compared  with  the  proportion  of 
sand.     Clay  and  silt  are  frequently  formed  from  materials 
rich  in  potash ;   hence  the  more  clay  or  silt  the  soil  con- 
tains, the  less,  as  a  rule,  is  the  need  for  potash. 


COTTON  FERTILIZERS  319 

However,  some  clay  soils  contain  a  large  amount  of  pot- 
ash, but  in  an  unavailable  form.  In  this  case  the  potash 
can  often  be  made  available  by  improved  preparation  and 
cultivation  and  by  the  addition  of  vegetable  matter.  The 
sandier  the  soil  and  subsoil  the  greater  is  the  need  for 
potash.  Even  on  sandy  lands,  this  fertilizer  may  not  be 
needed  in  any  considerable  amount  unless  cotton  rust 
commonly  occurs  on  such  soil. 

286.  Nitrogen.  —  The  proper  proportion  of  nitrogenous 
fertilizer  to  acid  phosphate  in  a  fertilizer  formula  for 
cotton  depends  more  on  the  recent  cropping  and  manur- 
ing of  the  field  than  on  the  character  of  the  rocks  from 
which  the  soil  has  been  derived.  One  can  usually 
decide  if  nitrogen  is  needed  by  considering  the  following 
facts :  — 

(1)  Small  stalks  (if  not  due  to  climatic  influences,  poor 
cultivation,  etc.)  are  usually  an  indication  that  nitrogen 
is  needed. 

(2)  Excessive  stalk  or  "  weed  "  growth  of  cotton  is  an 
indication  that  nitrogen  can  be  dispensed  with,  wholly  or 
partially. 

(3)  The  fresher  the  land  the  less  the  need  for  nitrogen. 

(4)  Phosphate  hastens  maturity  and  may  make  more 
severe  the  injury  from  cotton  rust. 

(5)  A  luxuriant  growth  of  cowpeas  or  of  any  other  legume 
just  preceding  cotton  largely  dispenses  with  the  necessity 
for  nitrogen  in  the  fertilizer ;  so  does  a  recent  heavy  dress- 
ing of  stable  manure  or  cotton  seed. 

However,  the  only  positive  means  of  determining  the 
exact  fertilizer  requirement  of  any  soil  is  by  making  on  it 
an  experiment  with  fertilizers. 


320  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

287.  Effects  of  commercial  fertilizers   on  the   soil.  — • 
Commercial  fertilizers  are,  on  the  whole,  profitable,  in 
spite  of  many  misfits  between  soil,  crop,  and  fertilizer. 
Indeed,  in  a  large  part  of  the  cotton-belt  they  are  indis- 
pensable.    The  profits  from  their  use  will  increase  with  a 
more  general  knowledge  of  agricultural  principles.     Com- 
mercial fertilizers  have  been  occasionally  charged  with 
being  largely  responsible  for  the  impoverished  conditions 
of  the  cotton  fields  and  the  scant  profits  of  the  cotton 
grower.     This  is  not  correct.     They  do  not  in  themselves 
exhaust  the  soil.     Reliance  upon  fertilizers   alone  may 
cause  a  farmer  to  keep  his  land  too  long  in  cotton,  instead 
of  letting  cotton  alternate  with  soil-improving  crops,  such 
as  cowpeas.     The  exhaustion  of  the  fertility  of  the  cotton 
fields  is  due  chiefly  to  leaching,  washing,  and  loss  of  vege- 
table matter  as  the  result  of  continuous  clean  cultivation. 

For  the  scant  profits  too  often  secured  in  the  culture 
of  cotton,  the  chief  causes  are  impoverished  soil,  purchased 
supplies,  unintelligent  use  of  fertilizers,  scarcity  of  capital, 
deficiency  of  labor-saving  machinery,  unsatisfactory  labor 
conditions,  and  the  failure  to  master  the  principles  which 
underlie  a  rational  system  of  farming.  What  should  be 
condemned  is  not  the  use,  but  the  abuse,  or  purposeless 
use,  of  commercial  fertilizers. 

288.  Most  popular  factory-mixed  fertilizers.  —  The  use 
of  ammoniated  guanos,  that  is,  complete  fertilizers  con- 
taining nitrogen,  is  more  general  among  cotton  farmers 
than  the  use  of  chemicals  bought  separately  and  mixed 
on  the  farm.     The  most  extensively  used  form  of  com- 
plete ready-mixed  guano  contains  about  1.65  per  cent  of 
nitrogen  (equal  to  2  per  cent  of  ammonia),  10  per  cent  of 


COTTON  FERTILIZERS  321 

available  phosphoric  acid,  and  2  per  cent  of  potash.     This 
is  spoken  of  as  a  10-2-2  guano. 

289.  Advantages  of  the  home-mixing  of  fertilizers.  — 
If  the  farmer  decides  to  buy  the  separate  materials  and 
do  his  own  proportioning  and  mixing,  he  usually  purchases 
cotton-seed  meal,  acid  phosphate,  and  kainit.  If  he 
wishes  to  make  a  more  concentrated  fertilizer,  that  is, 
one  of  higher  grade,  he  may  buy  the  nitrogen  in  the  form 
of  nitrate  of  soda,  or  sulfate  of  ammonia,  and  the  potash  in 
the  form  of  muriate  or  sulfate  of  potash.  Those  farmers 
who  understand  how  to  mix  fertilizers  find  that  it  is  much 
more  economical  to  do  so  than  to  buy  the  average  ready- 
mixed  guano.  The  advantage  of  home-mixing  are  the  fol- 
lowing :  — 

(1)  The  mixture  made  at  home  usually  costs  several 
dollars  less  per  ton  than  a  factory-mixed  fertilizer  of 
exactly  the  same  composition. 

(2)  Home  mixing  permits  the  farmer  to  suit  the  fer- 
tilizer to  the  particular  soil  on  which  each  lot  is  to  be  ap- 
plied, and  to  adapt  the  fertilizer  to  the  different  crops. 
For  example,  in  purchasing  a  complete  ready-mixed  fer- 
tilizer, he  applies  this  to  all  soils  and  all  crops;   yet  the 
nitrogen  in  it  is  not  needed  by  legumes,  such  as  cowpeas 
and  peanuts ;  and  the  potash  in  it  may  not  be  required  by 
any  crop  on  some  clay  soils.     In  making  his  own  mixture 
the  farmer  would  omit  the  nitrogen  in  the  one  case  and 
the  potash  in  the  other,  and  thus  save  their  cost.     How- 
ever, farmers  who  do  not  understand  how  to  suit  the  fer- 
tilizers to  the  soil  and  the  crop  find  it  advantageous  to 
use  a  factory-mixed  guano.     Its  one  slight  advantage  con- 
sists in  being  somewhat  more  evenly  mixed. 


322  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

290.  Amounts  of  increase  from  commercial  fertilizers. 
—  The  results  of  several  hundred  fertilizer  experiments 
made  on  a  great  variety  of  soils  in  Alabama  led  to  the  con- 
clusion that,  as  an  average,  each  ton  of  fertilizer  adapted 


FIG.  147. — A  FIELD  OF  COTTON. 

The  plot  on  the  left  was  unfertilized  and  yielded  only  460  pounds 
of  seed  cotton  per  acre  ;  that  on  the  right  received  640  pounds  per  acre 
of  a  complete  fertilizer  and  yielded  1206  pounds,  an  increase  of  746 
pounds  of  seed  cotton  per  acre. 

to  the  soil  should  afford  an  increase  of  about  1500  pounds 
of  seed  cotton, — or  one  bale  increase  per  ton  of  fertilizer 


COTTON  FERTILIZERS  323 

(Fig.  147).  Under  unfavorable  conditions, — as  on  prairie 
•  or  waxy  lime  land,  or  with  unsuitable  fertilizer,  or  with  the 
use  of  excessive  amounts,  —  the  increase  was  much  less. 
These  estimates  are  for  appropriate  mixtures  of  high- 
grade  chemicals. 

Smaller  figures  would  probably  represent  the  increase 
from  a  ton  of  ordinary  cotton  guano,  or  ready-mixed  fer- 
tilizer. 

If  all  the  fertilizer  experiments  made  by  the  experiment 
stations  be  averaged,  including  those  on  soils  not  needing 
fertilizers,  the  average  increase  drops  far  below  one  bale 
for  each  ton  of  fertilizer.  (Bui.  No.  62,  Bur.  Soils/ U,  S. 
Dept.  Agr.) 

291.  Profit  returned  by  fertilizers.  —  Assuming  an  in- 
crease of  one  bale  (say  1500  pounds  of  seed  cotton)  for  each 
ton  of  well-proportioned  and  appropriate  fertilizer  applied 
to  four  or  five  acres  of  land,  an  estimate  can  be  made  as 
to  the  profit,  under  favorable  conditions,  afforded  by  a 
judicious  investment  in  fertilizer.  Thus :  — 

To  one  ton  complete  fertilizer,  estimated  cost  r'  r' 

in  cash $22.00 

To  extra  cost  of  picking  and  ginning  the  in- 
creased yield,  1500  pounds,  at  60  cents  per 
hundred 9.00 

By  value  of  increased  amount  of  seed,   1000 

pounds,  at  75  cents  per  hundred    ....  $  7.50 

By  value  of  one  bale  of  cotton,  500  pounds  at 

10  cents  per  pound 50.00 

Possible  profit,  from  use  of  one  ton  of  fertilizer  .     $26.50 


$57.50    $57.50 

292.  Advantages  of  high-grade  fertilizers.  —  Among 
either  factory-mixed,  or  home-mixed  fertilizers,  those  of 
higher  grade,  that  is,  containing  higher  percentages  of 


324  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash,  naturally  cost  more 
per  ton  than  low-grade  fertilizers.  Yet  the  high-grade 
fertilizers  are  usually  more  economical.  The  true  test 
in  choosing  between  two  fertilizers  consists  in  calculating 
which  one  affords  a  pound  of  nitrogen,  potash,  and  avail- 
able phosphoric  acid  at  the  lower  price. 

The  reason  why  a  concentrated,  high-grade  fertilizer  is  usually 
more  economical  than  a  low-grade  fertilizer  is  made  clear  by  com- 
paring a  12  per  cent  acid  phosphate  with  a  16  per  cent  phosphate. 
To  afford  an  equal  amount  of  plant-food,  say  960  pounds  of  avail- 
able phosphoric  acid,  requires  4  tons  of  the  low-grade  fertilizer, 
but  or!/  3  tons  of  the  high-grade  fertilizer.  This  extra  ton  of 
the  low-grade  article  involves  extra  expense  for  freight,  hauling, 
mixing,  and  sacking.  Hence,  the  manufacturer  or  dealer  must 
charge  more  for  each  pound  of  plant-food  in  the  less  concentrated 
fertilizer. 

The  advantage  of  using  the  highest  grades  of  fertilizers  increases 
with  the  distance  that  the  fertilizer  must  be  shipped  and  hauled. 
If,  however,  a  fertilizer  be  made  too  concentrated,  there  is  greater 
difficulty  in  mixing  its  constituents  uniformly  and  in  applying  it 
evenly,  because  the  amount  to  be  used  on  each  acre  is  so  small. 

293.  Quantity  per  acre  of  fertilizer.  —  Experiments 
in  several  states  have  shown  that  an  application  of  400 
to  600  pounds  to  the  acre  of  a  fertilizer  adapted  to  the  soil 
affords  a  larger  profit  to  the  acre  than  the  use  of  smaller 
amounts.  At  the  Georgia  Experiment  Station  a  complete 
fertilizer  was  used  at  the  rate  of  400,  800,  and  1200  pounds 
per  acre.  Each  increase  made  a  decided  and  profitable 
increase  in  the  yield.  However,  the  smallest  lot  returned 
much  the  highest  percentage  of  profit  on  the  investment ; 
the  800  pounds  paid  a  higher  dividend  than  the  largest 
amount.  This  illustrates  the  usual  rule,  which  is  that 
the  percentage  of  profit  on  the  investment  in  fertilizers 


COTTON  FERTILIZERS  325 

decreases  as  the  amount  of  fertilizer  increases ;  but  that  the 
profit  per  acre  is  usually  greater  with  the  larger  amounts,  up 
to  a  certain  point,  which  is  often  above  600  pounds  per  acre* 

Probably  200  pounds  or  less  per  acre  is  the  amount  of 
fertilizer  most  generally  applied  to  cotton. 

Moderate  to  large  applications  pay  best  when  the 
season  is  favorable,  but  involve  the  risk  of  loss  should 
climatic  conditions  be  extremely  unfavorable.  To  ren- 
der as  safe  as  possible  heavy  or  intensive  fertilization,  the 
soils  on  which  it  is  employed  should  be  in  good  mechanical 
condition,  especially  as  regards  drainage  and  power  to 
retain  sufficient  moisture  during  drought.  This  latter 
condition  may  usually  be  brought  about  by  a  rotation 
that  affords  an  abundance  of  vegetable  matter  and  by 
judicious  preparation  and  cultivation. 

NITROGENOUS  FERTILIZERS 

294.  Nitrogen  produced   on  the  farm.  —  The  cheapest 
sources  of  nitrogen  are  barnyard  manure  and  the  legu- 
minous or  soil-improving  plants,  such  as  cowpeas,  velvet 
beans,  hairy  vetch,  and  (when  pastured  by  hogs)  peanuts. 
Manure  may  pay  even  better  for  hay  and  other  forage 
crops  than  for  cotton.     Cotton  seed  is  too  high-priced  in 
most  localities  for  use  as  fertilizer. 

295.  Cotton  seed    vs.    stable    manure.  —  In    Alabama 
extensive  comparisons  of  manure  from  horse  stables  with 
cotton  seed  were  made  on  many  soils,  using  an  average 
of  835  pounds  of  fresh  seed  alone  against  a  little  over  two 
tons  of  stable  manure. 

Increase  due  to  stable  manure,  —  seed  cotton  per  acre  .  444  Ib. 
Increase  due  to  cotton  seed,  —  seed  cotton  per  acre  .    .  288  11). 


326 


SOUTHEEN  FIELD   CROPS 


From  a  summary  of  the  results  of  many  tests  made  in 
Alabama  during  three  years  and  on  numerous  soils,  it 
appears  that  5  pounds  of  stable  manure  exerted  during 
the  year  when  applied  as  fertilizer  a  greater  influence  on 
the  yield  of  cotton  than  did  one  pound  of  cotton  seed 
used  without  crushing  or  heating;  that  the  average  yield 
was  increased  by  101  per  cent  when  stable  manure  was 
used  and  by  64  per  cent  when  cotton  seed  was  used ;  and 
that  to  obtain  an  increase  of  one  pound  in  the  yield  of 
seed  cotton  there  was  recjuired^  3  pounds  of  cotton  seed, 
or  nearly,  10  pounds  of  rich  stable  manure. 

296.  Cotton  seed  vs.  cotton-seed  meal.  —  Most  tests 
show  practical  equality  for  a  pound  of  nitrogen  in  cotton- 
seed meal  and  in  crushed  or  rotted  cotton  seed.  To  fur- 
nish equal  amounts  of  nitrogen  requires  the  following 
amount  of  each  :  — 


NlTHO- 
GEN 

PHOS- 
PHORIC 
ACID 

POTASH 

2000  Ib.  of  cotton  seed  contain     .... 
963  Ib.  of  cotton-seed  meal  (6|  per  cent 
nitrogen)  contain 

62.6 
62  6 

25.4 
26.5 

23.4 
163 

The  average  of  a  number  of  experiments  on  many  soils 
in  Alabama  showed  that,  as  a  fertilizer  for  cotton,  one 
pound  of  high-grade  cotton-seed  meal  was  equal  the  first 
year  to  2-j^  pounds  of  crushed  cotton  seed.  Later  ex- 
periments in  Alabama  and  Georgia  make  a  still  more 
favorable  showing  for  the  meal.  Cotton  seed  exerts  a 
greater  influence  the  second  year  than  does  the  meal; 


COTTON  FERTILIZERS  327 

however,  on  sandy  soils,  most  tests  show  the  residual  ef- 
fect of  both  cotton  seed  and  cotton-seed  meal  to  be  slight. 
It  seems  safe  to  conclude  that  on  most  soils  half  a  ton  of 
medium  or  high-grade  cotton-seed  meal  is  about  equal 
as  fertilizer  to  a  ton  of  cotton  seed. 

Cotton  seed  may  be  applied  in  deep  furrows  in  January 
without  much  danger  that  they  will  grow.  If  applied 
late,  they  should  first  be  either  crushed  or  composted  or 
subjected  to  a  high  temperature  caused  by  allowing  them 
to  be  moistened  and  heated  in  bulk.  When  the  seed  ger- 
minate, the  fertilizing  value  is  apparently  decreased,  but 
not  lost.  Further  experiments  on  this  point  are  needed. 

The  oil  is  without  value  as  a  fertilizer,  and  the  hulls 
contain  but  little  plant-food.  Therefore,  the  most  com- 
plete value  of  the  cotton  seed  is  obtained  by  the  public 
when  the  oil  mill  extracts  the  oil. 

It  has  been  shown  that  the  meal  and  hulls  from  one  ton 
of  cotton  seed  is  at  least  as  effective  a  fertilizer  as  the 
entire  seed.  Hence,  the  farmer  who  can  exchange  one  ton 
of  his  seed  for  the  meal  and  hulls  contained  in  it,  namely, 
about  750  pounds  of  meal  and  800  pounds  of  hulls,  loses 
nothing  in  fertilizing  value.  When  the  farmer  can  get 
1000  pounds  or  more  of  meal  and  no  hulls  for  one  ton  of 
seed,  he  usually  makes  a  nearly  equal  exchange,  if  the 
cost  of  hauling  be  disregarded.  He  should  usually  obtain 
in  exchange  for  a  ton  of  cotton  seed,  considering  only  the 
fertilizing  value,  as  many  pounds  of  meal  in  excess  of  1000 
pounds  as  will  pay  for  hauling  both  ways  and  whatever 
profit  he  may  see  fit  to  charge. 

297.  Other  forms  of  nitrogen.  —  Whenever  the  nitro- 
gen in  nitrate  of  soda  is  as  cheap  as  that  in  cotton-seed 


328  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CEOP8 

meal,  the  former  may  be  profitably  employed  on  cotton. 
The  farmer  should  buy  either  nitrate  of  soda,  cotton-seed 
meal,  dried  blood,  or  tankage,  choosing  that  one  in  which 
a  pound  of  nitrogen  costs  least.  Most  experiments  fail  to 
show  any  notable  difference  in  the  value  of  a  pound  of 
nitrogen  from  these  different  sources. 

298.  General    need    of    cotton    soils    for    nitrogen.  — 
Cotton-seed  meal  or  other  nitrogenous  fertilizer  is  highly 
beneficial  to  cotton  on  a  large  proportion  of  the  culti- 
vated area  of  every  region  where  the  soils  have  become 
poor.     Apparently   it   is   almost   universally   needed   on 
uplands  in  such  regions  except  on  (1)  new  grounds,  and 
(2)  on  soils  containing  considerable  vegetable  matter,  as 
the  result  of  proper  rotation  with  cowpeas,  or  other  humus- 
forming    crops.     Although    cotton-seed    meal    is    almost 
universally  beneficial,  it  is  not  always  profitable  when 
applied  to  cotton  at  the  rate   of  200  pounds  or  more 
per  acre.     Poor  physical  condition  of  the  land,  resulting 
in  a  scarcity  of  moisture  in  the  summer,  is  the  greatest 
hindrance  to  the  profitable  use  of  large  applications  of 
cotton-seed   meal.     But   even   with   poor   physical   con- 
dition, it  is  usually  profitable  on  soils  where  the  stalk  is 
small  to  supply  nitrogen  in  the  mixed  fertilizer  for  cotton. 

299.  Cost  of  a  pound  of  nitrogen.  —  A  pound  of  nitro- 
gen in  commercial  fertilizers  usually  costs  15  to  18  cents. 
To  learn  the  average  cost  each  year,  inquiry  should  be 
made  of  the  State  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  in  the 
capital  city  of  the  state. 

300.  Fertilizing  value   of  cotton-seed  meal  and    hulls 
before  and  after  being  fed.  —  In  an  experiment  at  the 
South   Carolina  Experiment  Station  a  definite  amount 


COTTON  FERTILIZERS  329 

of  cotton-seed  meal  and  hulls  was  fed  to  dairy  cows,  and 
every  particle  of  the  resulting  manure  was  returned  to 
the  soil  as  fertilizer  for  cotton.  An  exactly  similar  amount 
of  cotton-seed  meal  and  hulls  was  applied  directly  as 
fertilizer  for  cotton.  The  yield  of  cotton  was  much  greater 
where  the  manure  was  used.  This  was  probably  due  in 
part  to  the  quicker  decay  of  the  manure  than  of  the  meal 
and  hulls. 

301.  A  rational  system  of  fertilization  with  nitrogen.  — 
Considering   permanent  effect,   as  well    as  influence  on 
the  crop  immediately  following,   the  cowpea  and  other 
leguminous  plants  must  be  ranked  as  a  cheaper  source  of 
nitrogen  than  is  any  nitrogenous  material  which  may  be 
bought  as  commercial  fertilizers.     The  aim  of  the  cotton 
farmer  should  be  to  grow  such  areas  of  legumes  as  will 
enable  him  to  dispense  with  the  purchase  of  nitrogenous 
fertilizers  for  cotton,  using  the  funds  thus  saved  to  pur- 
chase increased  amounts  of  phosphates  or  other  necessary 
non-nitrogenous  fertilizers.     The  money  that  would  have 
been  necessary  to  purchase  one  pound  of  nitrogen  will  buy 
about  three  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  or  of  potash,  which 
larger  purchases  of  phosphate  and  potash  will  enable  the 
farmer  to  grow  heavier  crops  of  legumes.     And  heavier 
crops  of  legumes  trap  larger  amounts  of  otherwise  un- 
available atmospheric  nitrogen  and  result  in  further  soil 
enrichment  and  larger  yields  of  cotton. 

PHOSPHATIC  FERTILIZERS 

302.  Different  kinds  of  phosphate.  —  While  there  are 
a  number  of  forms  in  which  the  farmer  may  obtain  phos- 
phoric acid,  the  one  that  is  almost  universally  employed 


330  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 

in  the  cotton-belt  is- acid  phosphate.  This  usually  con- 
tains 14  to  16  per  cent  of  available  phosphoric  acid,  but 
both  lower  and  higher  grades  than  this  may  be  obtained. 
Add  phosphate  is  manufactured  by  adding  sulphuric 
acid  to  the  finely  ground  phosphate  rock,  or  raw  phos- 
phate. The  sulphuric  acid  is  employed  in  order  to  make 
the  phosphoric  acid  promptly  available  to  plants.  As 
the  sulphuric  acid  has  no  fertilizing  value,  it  serves  to 
dilute  the  original  phosphate  rock.  Hence,  acid  phos- 
phate usually  contains  only  about  half  as  large  a  percentage 
of  phosphoric  acid  as  the  raw  phosphate  from  which  it 
was  made.  But  nearly  all  of  the  phosphoric  acid  in  acid 
phosphate  is  in  a  soluble  or  available  condition. 

Raw  phosphate  consists  of  the  finely  ground  phosphate 
rock  without  treatment  with  any  acid.  Among  the 
names  given  to  it  are  crude  phosphate,  ground  phosphate 
rock,  and  floats.  It  usually  contains  from  26  to  30  per 
cent  of  total  phosphoric  acid.  All  of  this  is  insoluble, 
and  hence  not  in  a  form  to  be  immediately  used  by  the 
roots  of  plants. 

As  ground  phosphate  rock  contains  about  twice  as  much 
total  phosphoric  acid  as  does  acid  phosphate,  and  in  some 
localities  costs  less  than  half  as  much  per  ton,  it  would 
be  desirable  to  use  the  raw  phosphate  if  it  could  be  made 
available. 

303.  Effects  of  different  phosphates  on  cotton.  —  Re- 
peated experiments  in  many  states  have  shown  that 
cotton  can  make  some  use  of  raw  phosphate,  but  that 
acid  phosphate  usually  is  much  more  effective.  However, 
experiments  have  also  shown  that  the  raw  phosphate 
becomes  more  quickly  available  if  it  is  mixed  with  large 


COTTON  FERTILIZERS  331 

amounts  of  rotting  vegetable  matter.  Hence,  raw  phos- 
phate mixed  with  stable  manure  is  sometimes  as  effective 
as  an  equal  weight  of  acid  phosphate.  The  use  of  raw 
phosphate  for  cotton  should  probably  be  restricted  to 
cases  where  it  can  be  thus  used  with  manure  or  leaf-mold, 
or  to  soils  on  which  a  large  amount  of  vegetable  matter 
is  being  plowed  under.  Even  in  the  latter  case  acid  phos- 
phate is  usually  the  more  profitable  the  first  year. 

It  is  generally  believed  that  the  residual  effects,  that  is, 
the  effects  subsequent  to  the  year  when  it  is  applied,  are 
greater  with  raw  phosphate  than  with  acid  phosphate; 
but  the  difference  in  residual  effect  is  not  sufficient  to 
overcome  the  usual  greater  efficiency  of  acid  phosphate 
in  the  year  in  which  it  is  applied. 

304.  Other  sources  of  phosphoric  acid.  —  Another 
source  of  phosphoric  acid  is  slag  phosphate ;  this  is  more 
available  than  raw  phosphate.  Still  another  source  of 
phosphoric  acid  is  ground  bone,  which  is  not  extensively 
used  by  cotton  growers. 

The  principal  phosphate  mines  are  in  South  Carolina, 
Tennessee,  and  Florida.  Some  authorities  estimate  that 
unless  new  phosphate  mines  are  discovered,  or  the  export 
of  phosphate  to  foreign  countries  decreased,  the  supply  of 
high-grade  phosphate  rock  will  be  exhausted  long  before 
the  close  of  the  present  century.  This  is  one  of  the  con- 
siderations that  should  lead  farmers  to  utilize  on  the  farm 
the  substances  rich  in  phosphoric  acid.  Richest  of  these 
are  the  bones  of  animals.  Cotton  seed,  and  all  other  seeds, 
contain  considerable  phosphoric  acid,  which  is  retained 
on  the  farm  when  these  seed  are  there  fed  to  live- 
stock. 


332  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

The  cost  of  available  phosphoric  acid  in  commercial 
fertilizers  usually  ranges  around  5  cents  per  pound. 

305.  General  need  of  cotton  soils  for  phosphates.  — 
The  need  for  phosphate  as  a  fertilizer  for  cotton  is  appar- 
ently almost  universal  on  poor  land  east  of  the  Mississippi 
River.     Exceptions  are  found  in  some  of  the  soils  of  the 
Central  Prairie  Region  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi,  as 
well  as  in  the  similar  area  of  black  waxy  soil  in  Texas. 
Phosphate  is  also  often  needed  on  the  rolling  cotton  lands 
west  of  the  Mississippi,  that  have  sandy  and  loamy  soils. 

POTASH  FERTILIZERS 

306.  Extent  of  the  need  for  potash.  —  Potash  is  more 
abundant  in  Southern  soils  than  is  phosphoric  acid  or 
nitrogen.     Therefore,  most  crops  make  less  demand  for 
potash  in  the  fertilizer.     Cotton  agrees  with  most  other 
crops  in  less  frequently  needing  artificial  supplies  of  potash, 
or  in  needing  it  in  smaller  amounts  as .  a  plant-food  than 
the  other  two  fertilizer  constituents. 

This  small  demand  for  potash  is  notable  in  view  of  the  fact 
that  the  entire  plant  contains  about  three  times  as  much  potash 
as  phosphoric  acid.  The  less  frequent  need  for  potash  in  the 
fertilizer  seems  to  be  due  to  the  following  causes :  — 

(1)  To  relatively  greater  abundance  of  potash  than  of  phos- 
phoric acid  in  the  soils  of  the  cotton  fields. 

(2)  Probably  to  the  action  of  the  calcium  sulfate  (which  con- 
stitutes about  half  the  weight  of  acid  phosphate),  in  rendering 
a  Yailable  the  potash  of  the  soil. 

(3)  To  the  fact  that  the  seed  and  lint  taken  together  remove 
nearly  equal  amounts  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  thus  first 
exhausting  that  one  which  is  less  abundant,  —  phosphoric  acid. 

At  all  events,  healthy  cotton  plants  frequently  fail  to  make 


COTTON  FERTILIZERS  333 

profitable  use  of  potash.  At  the  several  experiment  stations  and 
substations  in  Mississippi  and  Louisiana  its  use  was  unprofit- 
able; the  South  Carolina  and  Georgia  stations  recommend  it 
only  in  relatively  small  amounts ;  and  the  Alabama  Station  has 
found  it  often  profitable,  but  more  useful  as  a  preventive  of  rust 
on  certain  soils  than  as  an  ordinary  plant-food. 

307.  Potash  as  a  means  of  checking  cotton-rust!  —  On 
soils  very  liable  to  severe  injury  by  attacks  of  cotton-rust 
the  use  of  potash  is  recommended;  for  on  such  soils 
potash,  ordinarily  in  the  form  of  kainit,  has  conspicuously 
decreased  the  amount  of  rust  and  greatly  increased  the 
yields.  Rust  occurs  most  frequently  on  poor  sandy  soils, 
such  as  are  especially  common  in  the  class  known  as  the 
Norfolk  soils,  which  constitute  a  large  proportion  of  the 
area  of  the  southeastern  part  of  the  cotton-belt.  Hence, 
on  such  poor  sandy  soils,  potash  is  more  frequently  than 
elsewhere  needed  for  cotton. 

In  several  hundred  local  tests  conducted  by  the  Alabama 
Experiment  Station,  100  pounds  of  kainit  per  acre  has 
been  highly  effective  in  restraining  cotton-rust,  apparently 
about  as  effective  as  200  pounds. 

In  one  test  60  pounds  of  kainit  effected  a  noticeable 
decrease  in  the  injury  from  this  disease.  Apparently  it 
is  safer  to  use  at  least  80  pounds  per  acre  where  the  pur- 
pose is  to  combat  rust. 

In  the  fertilizer  experiments  in  Alabama  two  facts  relative 
to  kainit  and  cotton-rust  are  noticeable,  viz.  (1)  the  usual  favor- 
able effect  of  kainit  in  checking  rust,  and  (2)  its  occasional  failure 
on  some  soils  and  in  some  seasons  to  reduce  the  injury  resulting 
from  this  disease.  Just  how  potash  decreases  rust  is  not  well 
understood.  It  enables  the  cotton  plant  to  remain  green  and 
thrifty  through  periods  of  unfavorable  weather.  Probably  it 


334 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


reduces  the  amount  of  water  necessary  to  keep  the  plant  in  health, 
judging  by  the  fact  that  potash  has  been  found  to  reduce  the 
amount  of  water  transpired  by  the  leaves  of  the  corn  plant. 
Potash  in  the  fertilizer  usually  causes  the  later  retension  in  the 
autumn  of  the  leaves  of  the  cotton  plant  (Fig.  148). 


FIG.  148. — A  COTTON' FIELD,  SHOWING  THE  EFFECTS  OF  POTASH  IN 
RETENTION  OF  THE  LEAVES. 

On  the  right,  the  fertilizer  contained  no  available  potash  ;  on  the 
left,  it  contained  50  pounds  muriate  of  potash  per  acre. 

308=  Kainit,  muriate  and  sulfate  of  potash.  —  In  ex- 
periments in  Alabama,  a  pound  of  potash  in  the  form  of 
muriate  was  as  effective  in  checking  rust  as  when  an  equal 
amount  was  applied  in  the  form  of  kainit.  It  is  slightly 
less  convenient  to  apply  muriate  of  potash ;  for  as  this  is 
four  times  as  strong  as  kainit,  it  is  advisable  to  use  only 


COTTON  FERTILIZERS 

25  to  50  pounds  of  the  muriate  per  acre,  which  small 
amount  necessitates  extreme  care  in  pulverizing  and  evenly 
distributing  this  fertilizer.  Aside  from  this  slight  con- 
sideration of  convenience,  the  farmer  should  buy  that  one 
of  these  materials  in  which  a  pound  of  potash  delivered 
at  his  farm  costs  him  less.  Where  the  freight  rate  and 
cost  of  hauling  is  high,  the  muriate  will  be  the  cheaper 
source  of  potash;  near  seaport  cities,  or  where  freight 
rates  are  low,  kainit  may  be  the  cheaper  form. 

Kainit  usually  contains  about  12  per  cent  of  potash 
and  muriate  four  times  this  amount.  Another  source  of 
this  plant-food  is  sulfate  of  potash,  in  which  a  pound  of 
potash  usually  costs  a  little  more  than  in  kainit  or  muriate. 
The  supply  of  potash  salts  comes  from  mines  in  Germany. 

MISCELLANEOUS  FERTILIZERS,  AND  EFFECTS  OF 
FERTILIZERS 

309.  Lime.  —  Lime  has  shown  very  slight  effect  as  a 
fertilizer  for  cotton  in  several  tests  in  South  Carolina  and 
at  Auburn,  Alabama.     At  any  rate,  cotton  is  not  con- 
spicuously a  lime-loving  plant,  like  clover,  wheat,  timothy, 
and  the  like.     Neither  is  cotton  averse  to  lime,  as  shown 
by  its   successful   growth  on  numerous  limestone   soils. 
In  the  Gulf  States  there  are  considerable  areas  of  slightly 
acid  upland  soils.    On  some  of  these  a  light  application  of 
lime  may  be  found  profitable  in  connection  with  other 
fertilizers. 

310.  Composts.  —  As   the   word    "  compost  "   is   used 
by  cotton  planters,  it  usually  refers  to  a  mixture  of  stable 
manure,  cotton  seed,  and  phosphate,  which,  after  being 
brought  together,  are  allowed  to  ferment  4  to  8  weeks. 


336  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

Other  coarse  materials,  and  also  other  chemical  fertilizers, 
often  enter  into  a  compost.  The  theory  underlying  the 
making  of  composts  is  that  during  the  fermentation, 
materials  previously  insoluble  are  decomposed  and  con- 
verted into  a  soluble  condition. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  four  experiments  at  the  Alabama  Experi- 
ment Station  offer  no  argument  in  favor  of  composting  such  ma- 
terials as  cotton  seed,  fine  stable  manure,  cotton-seed  meal,  and 
acid  phosphate.  Nor  do  the  experiments  along  this  line  made 
at  other  experiment  stations  sustain  the  claim-  that  these  ma- 
terials can  usually  be  profitably  composted  for  cotton  when  the 
price  of  this  staple  is  low  and  labor  expensive.  With  high- 
priced  cotton  and  cheap  labor,  otherwise  unemployed  in  winter, 
composting  may  be  profitable. 

It  is  not  contended  that  experiments  have  definitely  settled 
the  question  against  composting  stable  manure  and  cotton  seed. 
The  point  is  that  convenience  and  cost  of  labor  should  be  the 
chief  considerations  in  determining  whether  the  composting  of 
fine  stable  manure,  cotton  seed,  and  acid  phosphate  is  advisable. 
Conditions  may  justify  the  making  of  compost  heaps  when 
coarse  litter  of  any  sort,  as  oak  leaves,  pine  needles,  or  coarse 
manure  are  obtainable  at  slight  outlay  for  labor.  There  are  also 
good  reasons  for  placing  in  the  compost  heap  such  cotton  seed 
as  cannot  be  applied  in  the  drill  early  enough  to  prevent  germi- 
nation; many  farmers  find  composting  the  most  convenient 
means  of  killing  'the  seed  that  are  to  be  applied  late  in  the  season. 
The  Furman  formula  for  composting,  very  popular  in  the  1880's 
and  still  used,  consists  of 

750  pounds  stable  manure, 
750  pounds  cotton  seed, 
367  pounds  acid  phosphate, 
133  pounds  kainit. 

The  chemicals  and  cotton  seed  are  spread  in  alternate  layers, 
the  cotton  seed  being  dampened  and  mixed  with  the  phosphate 
and  then  with  the  manure.  In  four  to  six  weeks  the  compost 


COTTON  FERTILIZERS  %  337 

is  removed  in  vertical  layers,  thus  more  thoroughly  mixing  the 
materials. 

In  view  of  the  present  high  prices  of  cotton  seed,  and  with 
a  view  of  utilizing  cheap  raw  phosphate,  the  following  formula 
for  making  a  compost  for  cotton  is  suggested :  — 

One  load  coarse  stable  manure,  .dampened, 

300  pounds  raw  phosphate, 

One  load  leaf  mold  from  the  woods,  or  other  litter. 

311.  Effects  of  fertilizers  on  maturity.  —  Cotton  grow- 
ing on  poor  land  is  late  in  maturing,  unless  the  process 
be  hastened  by  the  loss  of  leaves  from  rust,  or  by  the  pre- 
mature death  of  the  plants. 

Acid  phosphate  decidedly  hastens  the  maturity  of  cotton. 
Its  use  enables  the  farmer  to  obtain  at  the  first  picking,  or 
at  the  first  and  second  pickings,  a  larger  proportion  of  the 
total  crop. of  cotton  than  by  the  employment  of  any  other 
single  fertilizer.  Other  forms  of  phosphoric  acid,  including 
raw  phosphate  and  basic  slag,  when  used  in  connection 
with  stable  manure,  have  also  been  found  to  hasten  ma- 
turity. At  the  Texas  Experiment  Station  (Bui.  75)  the 
plants  fertilized  with  acid  phosphate  were  18  inches  high 
when  the  plants  on  the  unfertilized  area  and  on  the  plots 
fertilized  with  nitrogen  or  potash  were  less  than  half  that 
height ;  at  the  time  when  the  phosphate  plants  bore  8  to 
16  squares  each,  the  other  plants  averaged  only  about  4 
squares. 

Nitrogen  in  commercial  fertilizers  in  small  or  medium 
amounts  somewhat  favors  early  maturity.  When  a 
nitrogenous  fertilizer  is  combined  with  acid  phosphate, 
the  highest  degree  of  earliness  is  secured.  On  the  other 
hand,  ripening  is  retarded  if  the  amount  of  nitrogen  be 
z 


338  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

excessive  or  if  a  nitrogenous  fertilizer  be  applied  very 
late.  It  is  a  common  observation  that  stable  manure 
makes  cotton  late  in  opening.  This  can  be  overcome  by 
caution  in  avoiding  the  use  of  excessive  amounts  and  by 
supplementing  the  manure  with  any  form  of  phosphate. 

The  use  of  potash  usually  causes  the  crop  to  retain  its 
leaves  and  to  continue  growing  late  into  the  fall.  Hence, 
potash  does  not  promote  early  maturity,  but  in  judicious 
proportions  in  a  complete  fertilizer  it  does  not  exercise 
an  injurious  retarding  effect. 

In  North  Carolina,  C.  B.  Williams  found  that  slacked 
lime  hastened  maturity  when  used  in  connection  with  a 
complete  fertilizer. 

Commercial  fertilizers,  judiciously  employed,  constitute 
one  of  the  most  effective  means  of  insuring  the  early  open- 
ing of  cotton,  and  thus  of  securing  a  crop  before  boll-weevils 
become  so  numerous  as  to  destroy  all  young  forms. 

By  hastening  the  maturing  of  the  cotton  plant,  commer- 
cial fertilizers  have  enabled  farmers  to  grow  cotton  in 
higher  latitude  and  in  higher  altitudes  than  was  possible 
before  their  use  became  common. 

Effects  of  fertilizers  on  quality.  —  In  Egypt,  where  a  cotton 
of  very  long,  fine  staple  is  produced,  attention  has  been  directed 
to  the  effects  of  fertilizers  on  the  quality  of  lint.  Observations 
on  cotton,  growing  in  the  rich  soils  of  that  country,  indicate  that 
heavy  applications  of  fresh  or  unfermented  barnyard  manure, 
or  other  fertilizers  promoting  a  very  rank  growth  late  into  the 
fall,  injure  the  quality  of  lint ;  while  phosphates,  which  hasten 
maturity,  improve  the  staple.  Partly  on  account  of  the  more 
prompt  action  of  nitrate  of  soda  as  compared  with  sulfate  of 
ammonia  or  other  nitrogenous  chemicals,  the  former  is  there 
given  preference  as  a  supplement  to  an  application  of  manure. 


COTTON  FERTILIZERS  389 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

1.  Assuming  that  nitrogen  is  worth  17  cents  per  pound,  avail- 
able phosphoric  acid  5  cents,  and  potash  5  cents,  calculate  the 
commercial  value  of  the  plant-food  in  a  ton  of  fertilizer  of  the 
following  composition :  — 

(a)  10  per  cent  available  phosphoric  acid,  2  per  cent  nitro- 
gen, and  2  per  cent  potash ; 

(6)  10  per  cent  available  phosphoric  acid,  3  per  cent  nitro- 
gen, and  3  per  cent  potash ; 

(c)  5  per  cent  available  phosphoric  acid,  4  per  cent  nitro- 
gen, and  5  per  cent  potash. 

2.  Calculate  the  percentage  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and 
potash  in  a  mixture  of 

300  pounds  nitrate  of  soda  containing  15  per  cent  of  nitro- 
gen; 

500  pounds  kainit,  containing  12  per  cent  of  potash ;    and 
200  pounds  of  acid  phosphate,  containing  16  per  cent  of 
available  phosphoric  acid. 

3.  Calculate  how  many  pounds  of  each  of  the  three  fertilizers 
just  mentioned  would  be  required  to  make  a  mixture  containing 
the  same  amounts  and  kinds  of  plant-food  as  one  ton  of  guano 
analyzing  10  per  cent  available  phosphoric  acid,   1.8  per  cent 
nitrogen,  and  2  per  cent  potash. 

4.  Calculate  how  many  pounds  of  the  same  kind  of  phosphate 
and  kainit  as  in  (2)  and  of  cotton-seed  meal  containing  2.8  per 
cent  of  available  phosphoric  acid,  6|  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  and  1.8 
per  cent  of  potash,  would  be  required  to  contain  the  same  kinds 
and  amounts  of  plant-foods  as  one  ton  of  guano  analyzing  10  per 
cent  available  phosphoric  acid,  2  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  and  2  per 
cent  of  potash. 

LITERATURE 

NEWMAN,  J.  S.     Ala.  Expr.  Sta.,  Buls.  Nos.  5,  12,  22. 
BONDURANT,  A.  J.,  and  CLAYTON,  J.     Ala.  Expr.  Sta.,  Buls.  Nos. 
34  and  42. 


340  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

DUGGAR,  J.  F.     Ala.  Expr.  Sta.,  Buls.  Nos.  78,  91,  103,  107,  113,. 

131,  145. 
REDDING,  R.  J.    Ga.  Expr.  Sta.,  Buls.  Nos.  11,  16,  20,  24,  27, 

31,  35,  39,  43,  47,  52,  56,  59,  63,  66,  75. 
CALVIN,  M.  V.,  and  KIMBROUGH,  J.  M.    Ga.  Expr.  Sta.,  BuL  No. 

79. 
MCBRYDE,  J.  B.     S.  C.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  (New  Series)  No.  2,  and 

Rpts.  1888-1889. 

HARPER,  J.  N.    S.  C.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  145. 
WILLIAMS,  C.  B.     N.  C.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bui.  Jan.,  1907  ;  and  Proc. 

Southern  Asson.  Commissioners  Agr.,  1909.   Raleigh,  N.C. 
WHITE,  H.  C.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  Expr.  S.tas.,  Bui.  No.  33, 

pp.  169-196. 
WHITNEY,  MILTON.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Soils,  Bui.  No.  62. 


CHAPTER   XX 

COTTON  — THE  CULTIVATION  OF  THE  AMERICAN 
UPLAND  GROUPS 

THE  modes  of  tilling  and  handling  a  crop  of  growing 
cotton,  as  of  any  other  wide-area  staple  crop,  come  to  be 
largely  traditional  and  perfunctory.  The  fact  that  such 
labor  is  often  left  to  ignorant  or  uninterested  workmen 
tends  to  perpetuate  this  rule-of-thumb.  Sometimes  the 
methods  are  followed  with  the  blindness  of  a  superstition. 
The  cotton-grower,  however,  must  recognize  that  even  the 
most  common  daily  labor  of  tillage  must  rest  on  principles 
and  reasons,  if  he  is  to  secure  the  most  satisfactory  results  ; 
therefore,  this  subject  is  worthy  of  careful  and  detailed 
consideration. 

312.  Disposal  of  litter.  —  Where  cotton  is  the  preced- 
ing crop,  the  first  step  in  preparing  the  field  for  another 
crop  of  cotton  consists  in  reducing  the  old  stalks  to  frag- 
ments fine  enough  to  be  plowed  under.  This  is  most 
economically  done  by  driving  a  stalk  cutter  (Fig.  77)  along 
each  row,  the  blades  on  the  cutter  chopping  the  stalks 
into  short  pieces.  A  more  common  method  consists  in 
beating  the  old  brittle  stalks  with  a  heavy  stick;  this  is 
best  done  during  dry  weather  or  on  a  frosty  morning  late 
in  winter.  Sometimes  the  stalks  are  lifted  by  a  plow  or 
by  hand  and  then  raked  and  burned.  This  latter  course 

341 


342  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 

should  be  avoided  except  when  it  may  be  made  necessary 
by  the  presence  of  the  cotton  boll-weevil. 

313.  Methods  of  plowing.  —  The  greater  part  of  the  area 
intended  for  cotton  receives  only  one  plowing  before  the 
seed  are  planted.     This  usually  consists  in  forming  ridges 
or  beds.     More  thorough  preparation  may  be  given  by 
first  plowing  the  land  level  or  flush,  afterwards  forming 
the  beds  by  a  subsequent  plowing.     The  conditions  under 
which  this  double  amount  of  preparation,  namely,  first 
broadcast  plowing  and  then  bedding,  is  especially  advis- 
able, are  the  following :  — 

1.  When  the  soil  is  a  stiff  loam  or  clay  inclined  to  form 
clods ; 

2.  When  the  land  has  not  been  cultivated  the  preceding 
year,  or  when  the  preceding  crop  is  one  that  has  left  much 
vegetation  on  the  surface. 

The  practice  of  plowing  land  twice  for  cotton,  first 
fallowing  it,  and  then  throwing  it  into  beds,  is  on  the  in- 
crease among  the  best  farmers. 

314.  Time    of   plowing   or   breaking.  —  February    and 
March  are  the  months  in  which  the  greater  part  of  the 
plowing  of  cotton  land  is  performed.     The  time  of  plow- 
ing is  largely  a  matter  of  convenience.     The  general  rule 
should  be  that  the  larger  the  proportion  of  clay  in  the  soil, 
the  earlier  may  plowing  be  done  to  advantage,    provided 
the  surface  be  freshened  later.     The  larger  the  amount  of 
trash  to  be  buried  and  rotted,  the  earlier  should  be  the 
date  of  plowing.     Some  farmers  begin  plowing  for  cotton 
in  December  or  even  in  November.     This  permits  freezes 
to  aid  in  pulverizing  the  soil  and  killing  some  kinds  of  cot- 
ton insects  that  spend  the  winter  in  the  ground. 


COTTON  CULTIVATION  343 

Early  plowing  may  cause  clay  land  to  become  too  com- 
pact before  the  time  for  planting.  In  this  case  it  is  de- 
sirable, shortly  before  planting,  either  to  replow  the  land 
or  to  loosen  the  surface  with  a  disk-harrow.  Too  early 
plowing  of  sandy  land  increases  the  loss  due  to  the  leach- 
ing out  of  plant-food  in  the  water  that  drains  through  the 
soil.  Hence,  sandy  land,  as  a  rule,  is  not  plowed  in  the 
fall.  However,  it  is  good  practice  to  plow  any  soils  ex- 
cept the  sandiest  in  the  fall,  provided  some  winter-growing 
crop,  such  as  the  small  grains,  or  clovers,  or  vetches,  are 
sown.  The  roots  of  the  growing  plants  largely  prevent 
leaching  by  appropriating  the  plant-food  that  becomes 
available  as  the  vegetable  matter  decays.  These  green 
crops  can  be  plowed  under  in  the  late  winter  or  early 
spring,  or  grazed,  or  otherwise  utilized,  Plowed  soil 
should  be  kept  covered  during  winter  with  growing  plants. 
Fields  covered  with  cowpeas  or  other  dead  leguminous 
plants  should  not  be  plowed  very  early,  since  early  fall 
plowing  would  induce  rotting  and  leaching  before  the  cot- 
ton plants  would  be  ready  to  utilize  the  nitrogen  made 
available  by  the  decay  of  the  legumes. 

A  small  proportion  of  the  area  in  cotton  is  plowed  only 
a  few  days  before  planting.  This  incurs  the  danger  that 
some  of  the  seed  may  fail  to  come  up  in  the  loose  soil, 
which  quickly  dries. 

315.  Depth  of  plowing.  —  A  large  proportion  of  the 
cotton  fields  are  plowed  only  3  to  4  inches  deep.  It  is 
generally  advisable  to  plow  deeper  than  this,  so  as  to  afford 
a  larger  amount  of  available  soil-moisture  for  the  benefit 
of  the  plants  in  periods  of  dry  weather,  and  to  increase 
the  feeding  area  for  the  roots.  However,  extreme  depth, 


344  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

as  well  as  extreme  shallowness,  is  to  be  avoided.  Plowing 
too  deep  may  bring  to  the  surface  much  of  the  subsoil, 
where,  for  a  year  or  two,  it  remains  infertile  and  subject 
to  baking  or  clod-forming.  Moreover,  the  cost  of  very 
deep  plowing  is  excessive.  A  depth  of  6  to  8  inches  may 
be  regarded  as  unusually  good  preparation;  this  depth 
should  be  attained  only  gradually,  that  is,  by  plowing 
each  year  only  about  an  inch  deeper  than  the  year  before. 
By  a  gradual  and  judicious  increase  in  depth,  a  few  farmers 
have  advantageously  stirred  their  soil  to  even  a  greater 
depth  than  6  to  8  inches.  For  very  deep  plowing  the  disk 
plow  is  a  favorite  implement  (Fig.  80). 

When  plowing  is  early,  or  several  -months  before  the 
time  of  planting  the  seed,  the  depth  may  well  be  greater 
than  in  late  plowing.  This  is  because  the  earlier  plowing 
permits  the  upturned  subsoil  to  be  improved  by  the  ac- 
tion of  freezes  and  of  the  air,  and  because  the  deeper  layer 
of  stirred  soil  requires  a  longer  time  to  settle  to  that  degree 
of  compactness  most  favorable  to  the  germination  of  seeds 
and  the  growth  of  plant  roots. 

Even  when  deep  preparation  fails  to  increase  the  yield 
the  first  year,  an  increase  is  apt  to  result  in  succeeding 
years.  The  aim  of  the  cotton  grower  should  be  gradually 
to  deepen  the  layer  of  plowed  soil. 

316.  Subsoiling.  —  This  term  means  the  loosening  of 
the  subsoil  without  bringing  it  to  the  surface.  It  is  usually 
accomplished  by  first  employing  an  ordinary  turn-plow, 
and  then  in  its  furrow  running  a  special  subsoil  plow  (Fig. 
78).  This  latter  plow  has  no  moldboard,  and  merely 
loosens  the  subsoil,  without  displacing  it. 

Subsoiling  is  a  means  of  suddenly  increasing  the  depth 


COTTON  CULTIVATION  345 

of  loosened  soil.  The  benefits  from  subsoiling,  when 
done  under  the  most  favorable  conditions,  are  the  same 
as  those  that  result  from  any  form  of  deep  plowing. 

However,  subsoiling  often  fails  to  pay  for  the  extra  ex- 
pense, especially  the  first  year.  Some  of  the  conditions 
under  which  subsoiling  is  often  unprofitable  are  the  follow- 
ing:— 

1.  When  performed  while  the  subsoil  is -too  wet ;  often 
when  the  surface  soil  is  dry  enough  for  plowing,  the  wet 
subsoil  is  simply   "  puddled,"   or  injuriously  compacted 
by  subsoiling.. 

2.  Subsoiling  is  usually  injurious  when  it  is  accom- 
plished so  late  that  there  is  not  afterwards  sufficient  rain 
to  settle  the  disturbed  subsoil  and  to  destroy  the  large 
air  spaces  between  the  clods  or  small  soil  masses. 

As  a  rule  the  most  favorable  time  for  subsoiling  in 
preparation  for  cotton  is  in  the  late  fall  or  early  winter 
before  the  lower  layer  of  soil  has  been  saturated  by  the 
winter  rains. 

317.  Forming  the  ridge  or  bed.  —  Most  cotton  fields 
are  prepared  by  throwing  together  at  least  four  furrow- 
slices  turned  up  by  a  moldboard  plow.  This  forms  a 
ridge  or  bed  which  is  usually  3  to  4  feet  wide,  and  several 
inches  high. 

In  regions  where  commercial  fertilizers  are  used,  there 
is  first  run  a  furrow  in  which  the  fertilizer  is  placed,  and 
over  which  the  bed  is  subsequently  formed.  This  center 
furrow  may  be  either  (1)  along  the  line  of  old  cotton 
stalks,  or  (2)  in  the  middle  or  water-furrow  of  the 
year  before,  or  (3)  it  may  be  run  in  land  already  plowed 
broadcast. 


346 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


When  cotton  follows  cotton,  the  plowing  to  make  a  center 
furrow  usually  serves  to  lift  out  the  roots  of  the  old  cotton  plants. 
This  is  the  first  step  in  preparation  and  may  be  taken  several 
weeks  earlier  than  the  other  steps  in  plowing. 

In  certain  stiff  lands  where  fertilizers  are  seldom  used,  it  is 
a  disputed  point  whether  a  center  furrow  is  advantageous.  Ex- 
periments on  this  point  are  too  few  to  be  conclusive.  The  use 
of  a  center  furrow  and  the  consequent  deeper  and  more  thorough 


FIG.  149. — A  MIDDLE  BURSTER,  OR  DOUBLE  MOLDBOARD  PLOW. 

preparation  under  the  center  of  the  bed  is  probably  advantageous 
when  plowing  is  performed  early ;  while  if  plowing  is  done  imme- 
diately before  planting,  a  center  furrow  may  leave  the  soil  too 
loose  for  the  maximum  germination  of  the  seed,  and  for  the  best 
growth  of  the  young  cotton  plants. 

In  "bedding  land"  the  first  two  furrows  thrown  together 
form  a  narrow  ridge  called  a  "list" ;  the  soil,  from  the  hitherto 
unplowed  strip,  or  "balk,"  is  usually  thrown  against  each  side 
of  the  "list"  by  a  turn-plow.  But  this  balk  is  sometimes  split 
and  thrown  outward  by  a  single  trip  of  a  double  moldboard 
plow,  called  a  "middle  burster"  (Fig.  149). 


COTTON   CULTIVATION  347 

318.  Formation  of  beds  by  using  a  disk-harrow.  —  A 

saving  of  labor  may  be  effected  by  forming  the  beds  with 
a  disk-harrow  instead  of  with  a  turn-plow.  The  use  of 
the  disk-harrow  for  this  purpose  is  practicable  only  on  a 
field  previously  plowed  broadcast. 

319.  Planting  cotton  level.  —  Practically  all  the  cotton 
of  the  United  States  is  planted  on  ridges  or  beds.     How- 
ever, a  few  farmers,  on  well-drained  sandy  soil,  plant  late 
cotton  on  land  that  is  not  bedded,  but  merely  "  flushed," 
or    "  plowed    broadcast."     This    requires    very    shallow 
planting,  and  also  requires  very  careful  early  cultivation 
to  prevent  covering  the  plants.     The  object  in  planting 
on  a  level  is  to  enable  the  plants  better  to  endure  drought. 

A  method  that  is  generally  an  improvement  on  the  last 
named  consists  in  forming  low  beds ;  before  being  planted 
they  are  pulled  down  almost  level,  by  harrowing  or  drag- 
ging them  whenever  a  crust  forms  or  whenever  young 
weeds  appear. 

320.  Distribution    of    fertilizers.  —  The    rows    having 
been  marked  off,  usually  with  a   shovel   plow,  the   fer- 
tilizer (if  any  is  to  be  used)  is  drilled  in  this  furrow.     It  is 
most  conveniently  put  in  place  by  means  of  a  one-horse 
fertilizer  distributor,  which  also  draws  earth  over  the  fer- 
tilizer.    Immediately  a  "  list  "  is  formed.     The  bed  may 
be  completed  at  once,  or  more  frequently  not  until  the 
entire  area  intended  for  cotton  has  been  thus  fertilized 
and  listed.     On  some  farms  the  fertilizer  is  distributed 
by  hand,   either  through  a   "  guano  horn "   or  without 
this  inexpensive  device. 

321.  Time  of  planting.  — The  usual  date  for  the  begin- 
ning of  cotton  planting  is  two  to  three  weeks  after  the 


348  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

average  date  of  the  last  killing  frost  in  that  locality, 
Planting  begins  in  March  near  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  it 
begins  about  April  1  in  the  central  part  of  the  Gulf  States  ; 
and  in  the  extreme  northern  part  of  the  cotton-belt  it 
may  be  delayed  until  May.  In  the  central  part  of  the 
cotton-belt  most  of  the  crop  is  planted  before  May,  but 
an  occasional  field  is  not  planted  until  about  the  first  of 
June.  Extremely  early  planting  increases  the  risk  of 
injury  by  frost  in  spring  and  increases  the  labor  of  culti- 
vation. Rather  early  planting  is  advisable  in  regions 
where  the  cotton  boil-weevil  is  present.  Extremely  late 
planting  reduces  the  labor  of  cultivation  and  usually  also 
reduces  the  yield,  many  of  the  immature  bolls  being 
destroyed  by  frost  in  the  fall. 

322.  Cotton  planters.  —  There  are  numerous  forms  of 
planters  for  cotton.  Most  of  them  plant  a  single  row  at  a 
time,  opening  the  furrow,  dropping  the  seed,  and  covering 
the  seed,  at  one  trip  (Fig.  150).  Probably  the  most  impor- 
tant features  about  a  planter  are:  (1)  provision  for  con- 
stantly agitating  the  mass  of  seed,  so  that  the  feed  may  be 
uniform,  and  (2)  provision  for  rolling  or  otherwise  pressing 
the  soil  around  the  seed. 

If  the  earth  above  the  seed  be  rolled,  or  otherwise  com- 
pacted, the  depth  of  planting  may  be  as  shallow  as  one  inch. 
The  usual  depth  is  from  one  to  three  inches. 

Some  planters  drop  the  seed  at  regular  intervals  rather  than 
in  a  continuous  drill.  Such  dropper-planters  may  require  that 
the  seed  be  first  treated  by  some  method  that  will  serve  to  lay 
the  fuzz  and  enable  the  individual  seeds  to  be  separated  from  the 
mass.  This  may  be  done  by  adding  a  little  thin  flour  paste  to 
the  dry  cotton  seed  while  being  shaken  in  a  revolving  barrel ;  or, 


COTTON  CULTIVATION 


349 


on  a  small  scale,  by  dipping  the  seed  in  full  strength  commercial 
sulfuric  acid,  for  about  two  minutes,  which  removes  the  fuzz. 
Immediately  the  sulfuric  acid  must  be  thoroughly  washed  off 
of  the  seed,  so  as  to  prevent  loss  of  germinating  power. 

The  most  common  method  of  preparing  the  seed  for  very  thin 
planting  consists  in  "rolling  the  seed."     This  is  done  by  dampen- 


FIG.  150. — AN  INEXPENSIVE  COTTON  PLANTER. 

ing  the  seed,  placing  them  in  a  barrel  fitted  with  a  frame  and 
crank  in  such  a  way  that  it  may  be  revolved ;  then  dry  ashes 
or  dust  is  added,  and  the  barrel  revolved,  thus  causing  the  ashes 
or  dust  to  coat  each  seed,  and  temporarily  to  paste  down  the  fuzz. 

323.  Quantity  of  seed.  —  A  bushel  of  cotton  seed 
usually  contains  between  120,000  and  150,000  seeds,  or 
enough,  if  each  one  developed  into  a  mature  plant,  to 
suffice  for  fully  fifteen  acres.  However,  it  is  customary 
to  plant  1  to  1J  bushels  of  seed  per  acre.  An  ideal 


350  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

planter  that  places  the  seed  in  a  narrow  drill  or  in  hills 
requires  less;  and  still  less  is  required  when  planting  is 
done  by  dropping  the  seed  by  hand  in  separate  hills. 

On  stiff  land,  it  is  regarded  as  advantageous  to  have  a 
thick  stand  of  plants,  so  that  the  combined  strength  of 
the  young  plants  may  be  exerted  to  break  through  the 
surface  crust,  which  might  be  too  strong  for  a  single 
plantlet.  On  the  other  hand,  the  presence  of  only  one 
seed  in  a  place  greatly  reduces  the  labor  of  chopping  or 
thinning  cotton. 

324.  Broadcast  tillage.  —  One  change  which  should,  be 
made  in  cotton  culture  is  the  introduction  of  broadcast 
tillage;  that  is,  of  cultivation  or  tillage  across  the  rows  by 
means  of  weeders  (Fig.  86)  or  of  light,  spike-tooth,  adjust- 
able harrows  (Fig.  85).  This  kind  of  tillage  permits  a 
larger  area  to  be  covered  in  a  day's  work  of  man  and  team 
than  does  any  other  kind  of  cultivation.  It  has  the  double 
object  of  breaking  the  surface  crust  before  this  has  become 
very  thick  and  hard,  and  of  destroying  weeds  and  grass 
while  they  are  extremely  small  or  merely  sprouting.  One 
horse  drawing  a  weeder,  or  a  double  team  drawing  a  light, 
spike-tooth  harrow,  may  cultivate  ten  or  more  acres  in  a  day. 

As  soon  as  a  crust  begins  to  form,  there  is  need  for  the 
use  of  a  weeder  or  light  harrow  at  the  following  stages  in 
the  cultivation  of  cotton :  — 

(1)  A  few  days  or  weeks  before  planting,  in  order  to 
break  the  crust  and  save  the  moisture  for  the  germination 
of  the  seed  soon  to  be  planted. 

(2)  Following  a  rain  occurring  soon  after  planting,  which 
otherwise  would  leave  too  dense  a  crust  to  be  easily  broken 
by  the  young  plants. 


COTTON   CULTIVATION  351 

(3)  Between  the  time  when  the  young  plants  first  take 
on  their  green  color  and  the  time  when  chopping  or  thin- 
ning is  done. 

However,  it  may  be  impracticable  to  use  either  weeder 
or  harrow  (1)  on  stony  land,  (2)  on  a  field  where  there  is 
much  trash,  and  (3)  where  the  stand  is  thin  or  very  ir- 
regular. 

The  judicious  use  of  the  weeder  or  light  harrow  just 
before  chopping  cotton  permits  this  operation  to  be  post- 
poned longer  and  to  be  effected  with  less  labor. 

325.  First  tillage  by  separate  rows.  —  As  soon  as  prac- 
ticable after  all  the  young  plants  have  appeared  above 
ground  and  have  taken  on  a  green  color,  the  first  tillage 
is  given  with   some   form  of  cultivator.     The  principal 
objects  of  this  operation  are  the  following :  — 

(1)  To  reduce  the  width  of  the  strip  that  is  subsequently 
to  be  thinned  by  the  hoe; 

(2)  To  destroy  vegetation; 

(3)  To  put  the  soil  into  the  best  condition  for  retaining 
moisture  in  dry  weather  and  for  the  growth  of  the  roots 
of  the  young  cotton  plant. 

326.  Narrowing  the  strip  to  be  hoed.  —  Since  the  main 
purpose   of   this   first   operation   is   to   prepare    for    the 
more  expensive  work  of  chopping,  any  implement   now 
used  must  run  very  close  to  the  line  of  young  plants  with- 
out   throwing   much    earth    toward    them.     Among    the 
implements  used  in  this  operation,  which  is  usually  called 
scraping  or  barring  off,  are  the  following :  — 

(1)  Any  ordinary  cultivating  implement  supplied  with 
a  fender  to  prevent  the  rolling  of  too  much  soil  on  the  tiny 
plant  (Fig.  87); 


352  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CEOPS 

(2)  Implements  supplied  with  small  points  on  the  side 
next  to  the  cotton; 

(3)  Moldboard-  or  turn-plows,  with  the  bar  side  next  the 
line  of  plants,  so  as  to  throw  the  soil  away  from  the  row. 

While  the  use  of  the  turn-plow  in  this  first  cultivation 
by  rows  is  perhaps  more  common  than  that  of  any  other 


FIG.  151.  —  ONE  FORM  OF  PLOW-STOCK. 

Showing  handles,  beam,  and  foot,  to  the  lower  part  of  which  sweeps, 
scrapes,  or  other  implements  may  be  attached. 

implement,  its  use  in  "  barring  off  "  cotton  is  subject  to 
the  following  objections  :  — 

(1)  It  leaves  the  young  plants  on  narrow  high  ridges, 
which  quickly  dry  out. 

(2)  These  narrow  high  ridges  may  crumble,  pulling  the 
plants  down,  if  heavy  rains  occur. 

(3)  The  deep  plowing  by  the  turn-plow  cuts  many  roots. 


COTTON  CULTIVATION 


353 


Therefore,  the  turn-plow  should  be  used  for  barring  off 
cotton  only  under  special  conditions ;  for  example  :  — 

(1)  When  grass  has  become  too  large  to  be  easily  killed 
by  "  scrapes  "  or  by  other  shallow-working    implements. 
In  this  case  the  best  means  of  killing  the  grass  may  be  by 
burying  it  for  a  number  of 

days,   as   is   done   by   the 
moldboard  plow. 

(2)  The  deep  tillage,  such 
as  that  given  by  the  turn- 
plow,  may  sometimes  be  de- 
sirable on  clay  soils  prepared 
early     and     subsequently 
very  greatly  compacted  by 
rains,  hence  needing  stirring 
after  the  plants  come  up. 

A  widely  used  and  gener- 
ally satisfactory  implement 
for  this  cultivation  or  scrap- 
ing is  a  narrow  sweep  or 
scrape,  especially  when 
equipped  with  a  fender. 
Such  a  cultivating  imple- 
ment may  be  one  of  several 
similar  points  attached  to 
a  two-horse  cultivator  or 
to  a  one-horse  cultivator, 
or  it  may  be  the  sole  point 
on  an  ordinary  cultivating 
"  stock,"  or  plow  frame 
(Fig.  151). 

2A 


FIG.  152.  — A  YOUNG  COTTON  PLANT 
SHOWING  Two  SEED-LEAVES  BELOW 
AND  Two  TRUE  LEAVES  ABOVE. 


354 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


327.  Chopping  or  thinning.  —  As  soon  as  possible  after 
the  operation  of  scraping  or  barring  off,  the  plants  (Fig. 
152)  should  be  thinned  by  means  of  a  hoe.  This  first  hoe- 
ing is  called  "  chopping."  Usually  either  one  or  two  plants 
are  left  at  the  desired  distance  apart.  Much  subsequent 
hoe  work  is  saved  if,  at  the  time  of  chopping,  the  plants 
can  be  safely  thinned  to  a  single  one  at  the  required  dis- 
tance apart.  However,  it  may  be  wise  to  leave  two  or 


FIG.   153.. —  VARIOUS  FORMS  OF  SWEEPS  AND  SCRAPE  USED  IN  CULTI- 
VATING COTTON. 

more  plants  in  a  place,  or  twice  as  many  hills  as  will  finally 
remain,  if  chopping  is  done  when  the  plants  are  extremely 
small,  or  if  many  of  the  young  plants  are  expected  to  die 
as  the  result  of  disease  or  of  unfavorable  weather. 

328.  Second  cultivation  or  "siding."  —  The  objects  in 
"  siding  "  cotton  are  as  follows  :  — 

(1)  To  throw  close  about  the  plant,  for  its  firmer  support, 
earth  that  may  have  been  removed  from  it  in  the  first 
cultivation  or  in  hoeing. 


COTTON  CULTIVATION  355 

(2)  To  form  a  mulch  that  will  retain  the  moisture  in 
the  soil  layer  just  below  it. 

(3)  To  destroy  weeds. 

Since  one  purpose  is  to  throw  a  little  earth  towards  the 
plants,  the  scrape  or  sweep  now  used  may  be  wider  than 
that  used  at  the  first  cultivation  (Fig.  153).  To  prevent 
the  small  plants  being  covered,  it  may  still  be  necessary  to 
use  a  fender  attached  to  the  stock  or  cultivator  (Fig.  87). 

This  second  tillage  or  cultivation  is  done  by  running  the 
cultivating  implement  close  on  both  sides  of  each  row  of 
plants.  Hence,  for  scraping,  two  furrows  per  row  usually 
suffice,  where  a  single  scrape  or  sweep  is  used. 

Siding  should  sometimes  be  done  as  soon  as  practicable 
after  chopping.  But  in  order  to  give  time  for  grass  to  be 
smothered  by  the  earth  thrown  on  it  in  "  barring  off,"  sid- 
ing may  be  delayed. 

329.  Third  tillage  or  cultivation,  or  "  cleaning  middles/' 
—  If  the  "  siding "  just  described  has  been  performed 
with  only  two  scrape  furrows  per  row,  there    is    usually 
left  a  low  ridge  of  soil,  called  a  "  balk  "  or   "  middle," 
halfway  between  each  two  lines  of  plants.     If  this  strip 
becomes  compact  or  weedy,  the  next  step  is  to  cultivate 
it.     This  is  usually  done  by  a  single  furrow  of  a  rather 
large  sweep  or  scrape,  which  splits  the  "  middle,"  lapping 
part  of  it  on  each  of  the  adjacent  rows.     When  a  double 
cultivator  is  employed,  it  cultivates  the  plants  on  both 
sides  and  throws  out  the  "  middles  "  at  the  same  time. 
Even  when  a  single  scrape  is  used  in  "  siding,"  farmers 
often  prefer  to  throw  out  the  "  middle "  immediately. 

330.  Subsequent  tillage.  —  The  operation  of  " siding"  is 
repeated  as  often  as  necessary  to  destroy  all  young  weeds 


356  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

and  grass  and  to  prevent  the  formation  after  each  rain  of 
a  crust  on  the  soil,  which  would  hasten  the  loss  of  water 
by  evaporation.  Likewise,  the  middles  are  cleaned  or 
thrown  out  as  often  as  necessary  for  the  same  purpose. 
The  larger  the  plant  becomes,  the  wider,  as  a  rule,  are  the 
scrapes  or  sweeps  employed. 

It  should  constantly  be  borne  in  mind  that  one  of  the 
principal  objects  of  tillage  is  to  form  a  mulch  of  loose  dry 
soil  through  which  the  moisture  from  the  lower  layers 
cannot  rise  and  be  evaporated. 

331.  Subsequent    hoeing.  —  The    hoeings     subsequent 
to  chopping  are  necessary  only  when  vegetation  grows 
along  the  line  of  plants  in  spite  of  the  earth  thrown  upon 
the  young  weeds  in  siding.     Hoeing  is  a  cleaning  rather 
than  a  true  tillage  or  mulching  process.     Next  to  picking, 
it   is   the   most   expensive   operation  in   cotton   culture ; 
hence,  as  far  as  practicable,  the  horse  implements  should 
be  made  to  lessen  the  necessity  of  hoeing. 

332.  Amount  and  frequency  of  tilling.  —  There  can  be 
no  fixed  rule  as  to  how  often  cotton  should  be  cultivated. 
The  general  rule  is  to  cultivate  it  before  the  formation  of 
a  crust  following  each  rain.     Four  "plowings"  may  be 
considered  the  minimum  and  six  or  more  are  often  advis- 
able.    The  total  number  of  furrows  per  row  required  in 
good  tillage  is  usually  between  twelve  and  sixteen.    In  addi- 
tion to  this,  two  or  more  hoeings  are  usually  given. 

333.  Late  tillage.  —  Practice  varies   greatly  as  to   the 
stage  in  the  life  of  the  cotton  plant  when  cultivation  should 
cease.     In  most  parts  of  the  cotton-belt,  tillage  is  contin- 
ued through  July  and  sometimes  into  August.     The  gen- 
eral rule  is  that  cotton  plants  that  are  making  less  than 


COTTON  CULTIVATION  357 

a  normal  growth  of  limbs  and  foliage  should  be  cultivated 
late,  while  plants  of  large  size  may  be  "  laid  by  "  earlier, 
so  as  to  check  the  growth  of  stalk. 

After  cotton  has  received  what  has  been  planned  to  be' 
the  last  tilling,  rains  sometime  occur  within  a  few  days, 
destroying  the  soil-mulch  made  by  the  last  cultivation. 
In  this  case  it  is  usually  advisable  to  give  an  additional 
late  cultivation,  so  as  to  reestablish  the  soil-mulch,  and 
to  retain  the  moisture  in  the  soil. 

At  the  final  tillage  of  cotton,  the  middles  are  always 
thrown  out. 

334.  Depth  of  cultivation.  —  The  same  principle  applies 
here  as  in  the  tillage  of  any  other  crop.     At  the  first  culti- 
vation, the  depth  may  well  be  shallow,  medium,  or  deep, 
as  the  judgment  of  the  farmer  dictates.     But  in  the  sub- 
sequent tillings,  the  depth  should  be  shallow  ;   that  is,  just 
deep  enough  to  destroy  vegetation  and  to  form  a  soil-mulch 
thick  enough  to  check  evaporation. 

Usually  a  depth  of  1J  to  2  inches  meets  these  require- 
ments. The  finer  the  soil  particles  forming  the  mulch, 
that  is,  the  more  complete  the  pulverization  effected  by 
the  tilling  implement,  the  less  the  thickness  of  soil-mulch 
required  to  check  evaporation.  A  three-inch  mulch  of 
small  clods  is  less  effective  than  an  inch  mulch  of  well- 
pulverized  soil. 

335.  Sowing    seed    among    growing    cotton    plants.  — 
When  it  is  desired  to  improve  the  soil  by  growing,  during 
the   cooler  months,   some  soil-improving  plant,   such  as 
crimson  clover  or  hairy  vetch,  the  time  selected  for  sowing 
the  seed  is  usually  immediately  after  the  first  picking. 
By  choosing  this  time,  no  cotton  is  knocked  from  the 


358  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

plants  by  the  one-horse  cultivator  used  in  covering  these 
seed.  On  some  farms  fall-sown  oats  are  sown  among  the 
growing  cotton  plants  and  covered  as  just  indicated.  To 
permit  the  use  of  harvesting  machinery  in  the  oats,  the 
cotton  plants,  if  large,  are  loosened  in  winter  by  means 
of  a  narrow  plow,  or  by  the  use  of  a  subsoil  plow,  and  then 
pulled  and  removed. 

336.  Distance  between  rows.  —  In  deciding  on  the 
space  between  rows  and  between  plants  of  cotton,  the 
general  rule  is  as  follows :  The  richer  the  land,  the  wider 
must  be  the  rows  and  the  greater  the  distance  between 
plants  in  the  row.  This  rule  is  exactly  the  opposite  of 
the  practice  in  spacing  Indian  corn.  The  reason  for 
planting  cotton  farther  apart  on  rich  land  is  the  fact 
that  cotton  is  a  branching  or  spreading  plant,  and 
hence  on  rich  land  requires  much  space  for  the  outward 
growth  of  its  long  branches.  On  the  other  hand,  corn 
has  no  branches  and  may  be  crowded  as  closely  together 
as  is  permitted  by  the  supply  of  plant-food  and  of 
moisture,  both  of  which  are  of  course  more  abundant  on 
rich  land. 

The  usual  distance  between  rows  of  cotton  on  upland, 
where  a  crop  of  one  half  bale  or  less  per  acre  is  expected, 
is  3J  feet.  On  highly  fertilized  upland,  the  distance  may 
well  be  increased  to  4  feet.  On  bottom  land  and  other 
very  rich  land,  a  distance  of  5  feet  is  advisable,  and  occa- 
sionally even  wider  rows  are  preferable. 

The  wider  the  rows  can  be  made  without  reducing  the 
yield,  the  cheaper  is  the  cost  of  cultivation,  since  work 
with  cultivators  is  cheaper  than  work  along  the  rows  with 
the  hoe. 


COTTON  CULTIVATION  359 

337.  Distance  between  plants  in  the  row.  —  Much  of 
the  cotton  grown  in  the  United  States  is  unduely  crowded 
in  the  row.     A  distance  of  12  inches  may  be  regarded  as 
the  minimum  even  for  very  poor  land.     With  almost  any 
character  of  medium  or  fair  soil,  capable  of  producing  one 
half  bale  of  cotton  or  more  per  acre,  it  is  usually  better 
to  space  the  plant  at  least  18  inches  apart. 

To  increase  this  distance  beyond  2  feet  is  usually  unwise, 
except  when  the  soil  is  very  rich ;  in  this  latter  case,  it  is  better 
to  increase  the  width  of  the  rows  than  to  space  the  plants  much 
more  than  2  feet  apart. 

By  giving  ample  distance  between  plants  in  the  drill,  the  num- 
ber of  bolls  per  plant  is  greatly  increased.  Thus  on  well-fertilized 
land,  plants  spaced  1  foot  apart  averaged  12.6  bolls  per  plant, 
while  with  double  this  space,  there  was  an  average  of  40  bolls 
per  plant.  (S.  C.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  140.)  In  this  case  the 
number  of  bolls  per  acre  and  the  yield  were  much  greater  with 
the  thinner  planting. 

338.  Results   of  distance   experiments  with   cotton.  — 
Most  of  the  experiment  stations  in  the  Southern  States 
have  conducted  experiments  on  this  subject.     Naturally 
the  results  have  varied  greatly  as  influenced  by  differences 
in  soil,  in  fertilizer,  in  rainfall,  and  in  the  variety  of  cotton 
under  observation.     In  a  series   of  experiments   at  the 
Georgia  Station,  where  the  yield  was  a  little  more  than  a 
bale  per  acre,  slightly  higher  yields  were  made  where  the 
plants  stood  1   foot  apart  than  where  they  were  2  feet 
apart ;  a  distance  of  3  feet  between  plants  afforded  a  slight 
reduction  in  yield;   and  where  the  space  between  plants 
was  increased  to  4  feet,  the  yield  was  notably  decreased. 

In  the  Piedmont  region  of  North  Carolina  the  King  variety 
made  as  the  average  of  a  five  years'  test  the  greatest  yield  when 


360  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 

the  plants  were  spaced  16  inches  apart,  the  rows  being  3|  feet 
wide  ;  in  rows  4  feet  wide,  larger  yields  were  obtained  when  the 
spaces  between  plants  were  12  or  16  inches  than  when  the  space 
was  greater.  In  the  coast  region  of  North  Carolina  at  the 
Edgecomb  Test  Farm,  nearly  similar  results  were  obtained  with 
the  Russell  variety. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

The  laboratory  work  to  accompany  this  chapter  should  con- 
sist of  participation  in  any  of  the  operations  connected  with  cot- 
ton culture  that  may  be  in  progress  at  the  time  this  subject  is 
studied.  In  case  this  is  not  practicable,  field  observations  on 
the  results  of  such  operations  should  be  made  by  the  student  and 
presented  to  the  instructor  in  the  form  of  descriptions  or  drawings. 

LITERATURE 

DUGGAR,  J.  F.     Ala.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  107. 

REDDING,  R.  J.     Ga.  Expr.  Sta.,  Buls.  Nos.  43,  47,  52,  56,  and  59. 

MAcNiDER,  G.  M.,  and  others.     N.  C.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bui.,  Feb., 

1909. 

MCBRYDE,  J.  B.     S.  C.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  2. 
HAMMOND,  HARRY.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  Expr.  Stas.,  Bui. 

No.  33,  pp.  225-278. 
BURKETT,  C.  W.,  and  POE,  C.  H.    Cotton,  pp.  147-168.    New 

York,  1906. 
MERCIER,  W.  B.    Bailey's  Cyclo.  Agr.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  257-258. 


CHAPTER   XXI 
COTTON  —  HARVESTING   AND    MARKETING 

PICKING,  ginning  (removing  the  lint  from  the  seed), 
baling,  and  compressing  into  very  hard  and  compact  bales 
for  long-distance  transportation  are  the  different  processes 
in  the  harvesting  and  marketing  of  cotton;  and  to  these 
is  here  added  a  brief  discussion  of  grades,  qualities,  and 
market  classes. 

339.  Picking. — The  picking  of  the  crop  is  the  most 
expensive  operation  connected  with  cotton  culture.  The 
price  paid  varies  greatly,  but  is  usually  between  40  and 
75  cents  per  one  hundred  pounds  of  seed  cotton.  This  is 
equivalent  to  about  1J-  to  2J  cents  per  pound  of  lint,  or 
$6  to  $11  per  bale.  In  localities  where  labor  is  scarce 
or  expensive,  the  cost  of  picking  is  sometimes  even  above 
the  highest  figure  just  mentioned. 

Picking  begins  in  August  or  early  in  September.  The 
greater  part  of  the  crop  is  picked  in  the  months  of  Sep- 
tember, October,  and  November.  In  some  localities  con- 
siderable cotton  is  picked  in  December  and  a  small  amount 
sometimes  remains  in  the  field  until  after  Christmas. 

A  fair  day's  work  for  an  experienced  picker  is  150  to 
200  pounds  of  seed  cotton;  but  very  skillful  pickers, 
under  special  incentives,  and  for  a  single  day  at  a  time, 
have  picked  more  than  double  these  quantities. 

361 


362 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


FIG.  154.  —  AN  ALABAMA  COTTON  FIELD  THAT  YIELDED  ABOUT  Two 
AND  ONE-HALF  BALES  PER  ACRE. 


COTTON  HARVESTING  363 

In  picking,  the  principal  aims  are  :  (1)  rapidity  of  work,  (2)  the 
inclusion  of  only  the  minimum  amount  of  trash,  and  (3)  com- 
pleteness of  work,  so  as  not  to  leave  in  the  bur  an  occasional 
lock  or  piece  of  a  lock.  In  connection  with  the  latter,  aim  it 
should  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  is  sometimes  more  profitable  to 
leave  unpicked  a  lock  of  stained  or  diseased  cotton  than  to  in- 
clude it  with  the  main  picking,  since  it  would  tend  to  lower  the 
quality  of  the  entire  lot,  and  to  perpetuate  disease  if  the  seeds  are 
used  for  planting. 

When  locks  lying  on  the  ground  where  they  have  been  stained 
by  dust  or  mud  are  included  with  the  main  picking  of  white  cotton, 
the  selling  price  of  the  whole  is  lowered.  It  pays  to  harvest 
stained  cotton  separately  or  else  to  leave  it  unpicked.  Cotton 
picked  while  wet,  unless  afterwards  very  thoroughly  dried,  makes 
a  poor  staple,  which  sells  at  a  reduced  price,  because  of  the  fibers 
broken  in  ginning  damp  cotton. 

Yields.  —  The  average  yield  per  acre  in  the  United  States  is 
about  200  pounds  of  lint,  or  two-fifths  of  a  bale  per  acre.  How- 
ever, more  than  a  bale  per  acre  is  often  grown  in  productive 
fields.  Occasional  yields  of  more  than  two  bales  per  acre  are 
obtained  (Fig.  154). 

340.  Mechanical  cotton-pickers.  —  The  models  in  the 
Patent  Office  at  Washington  show  that  numerous  cotton- 
pickers  have  been  invented  and  that  most  of  these  have 
never  been  brought  into  use.  However,  within  the  first 
decade  of  the  twentieth  century  several  cotton-picking 
machines  have  demonstrated  that  they  can  pick  large  quan- 
tities of  cotton,  that  they  can  harvest  80  to  90  per  cent 
or  more  of  the  cotton  open  at  the  time  of  operation,  and 
that  they  can  pick  without  including  very  much  more  trash 
than  that  included  by  careless  hand-picking. 

Many  of  these  mechanical  pickers  are  only  partly  auto- 
matic, and  require  human  brains  and  hands  to  guide  the 
separate  picking  devices. 


364 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


COTTON  HARVESTING 


365 


Some  of  these  machines  operate  on  the  suction  principle ; 
the  open  end  of  a  hose  pipe  is  directed  by  the  human  hand  close 
to  each  open  boll,  when  the  suction  created  by  a  revolving  fan 
on  the  machine  draws  the  seed  cotton  through  a  tube  and  into  a 
hopper.  An  example  of  this  class  of  suction  machines  is  the 
Worswick-Haardt  picker,  invented  by  J.  E.  Worswick,  Mont- 
gomery, Alabama  (Fig.  155). 

Other  mechanical  pickers  entangle  the  seed  cotton  by  means 
of  innumerable  sharp,  tack-like  points  embedded  in  narrow  re- 


FIG.  156.  — THE  DIXIE  COTTON  PICKER. 


volving  belts,  which  are  directed  by  human  hands  into  contact 
with  the  open  boll ;  the  lint  is  instantly  entangled  and  borne 
along  the  revolving  belt  to  the  hopper,  where  it  is  removed  by 
brushes.  An  example  of  such  a  machine  is  the  Lowry  Cotton 
Picker,  invented  by  George  A.  Lowry,  Boston,  Massachusetts. 

Among  other  mechanical  cotton-pickers  recently  advertised 
are  the  following :  — 

The  Dixie  Cotton  Picker,  invented  by  John  F.  Appleby, 
Chicago,  Illinois  (Figs.  156  and  157). 


366 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


The  Oliver  Cotton  Picking  Machine,  advertised  by  Stern 
&  Sons  Company,  Chicago,  Illinois. 

The  Thurman  Vacuum  Cotton  Picking  Machine,  manufac- 
tured by  Vacuum  Cotton  Picking  Machine  Company,  St.  Louis, 
Missouri. 

The  Price-Campbell  Cotton  Picking  Machine,  invented  by 
Angus  Campbell,  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania,  and  exploited  by 
Theodore  Price,  New  York  City. 

It  seems  safe  to  predict  that  the  time  is  near  at  hand  when 
cotton-picking  machines  will  harvest  a  part  of  the  crop  where 


FIG.  157. — VERTICAL  SECTION  THROUGH  DIXIE  COTTON  PICKER 
WHEN  AT  WORK. 


the  conditions  for  their  work  are  most  favorable  and  where  labor 
is  scarce  or  expensive.  The  chief  difficulty  in  the  way  of  their 
rapid  introduction  is  the  high  price  at  which  it  is  now  proposed 
to  sell  these  mechanical  pickers. 

341.  Ginning.  —  After  being  picked,  the  seed  cotton  is 
hauled  to  the  gin,  which  is  usually  a  public  ginnery,  oper- 
ated by  steam  power  (Fig.  158).  There  suction  pipes  lift 
it  from  the  wagon,  and  suitable  devices  carry  it  through 


COTTON  HARVESTING  361 

a  cleaner,  and  thence  through  the  gin,  which  breaks  the 
lint  from  the  seeds  by  means  of  circular  saws  which  re- 
volve at  a  speed  of  about  400  to  500  revolutions  per  min- 


^BR 


FIG.  158.  —  SECTION  THROUGH  A  GINNERY. 
Showing  four  gins,  press,  suction  pipe,  and  shafting. 

ute  (Fig.  159).  A  brush  removes  the  lint  from  the  saws 
and  passes  it  to  a  condenser,  which  presses  it  into  layers. 

Cotton  ginned  when  damp  affords  a  poor  sample  be- 
cause the  gin  cuts  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  fibers. 

It  is  generally  believed  that  a  better  grade  or  sample 
is  afforded  by  storing  the  seed  cotton  for  a  few  weeks  than 
by  ginning  it  soon  after  picking. 

342.  Baling.  —  The  fleecy  staple  is  then  carried  to  the 
press  and  compacted  into  rectangular  (so-called  "  square  ") 
bales,  which  usually  weigh  about  500  pounds  each,  or 
about  14  pounds  for  each  cubic  foot. 


368 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


SPIKED  ROUE 


FIG.  159.  —  TRANSVERSE  SECTION  THROUGH  A  COTTON  GIN. 


COTTON  HARVESTING 


869 


The  bales  are  covered  with  heavy  coarse  cloth  or  "  bag- 
ging." One  of  the  greatest  wastes  connected  with  the 
growing  and  marketing  of  cotton  in  the  United  States  is 
the  failure  to  use  a  sufficient  amount  of  bagging  and  of  a 
quality  suitable  to  prevent  the  staining  of  the  outer  layers 
of  the  staple  with  mud  and  dust. 

The  amount  of  tare  (or  weight  of  bagging  and  ties)  which  the 
trade  is  supposed  to  allow  is  30  pounds  on  a  500-pound  bale; 
but  only  on  a  few  bales  do  the  bag- 
ging and  ties  weigh  this  much,  and 
these  are  penalized  or  "  docked  "  ;  the 
interest  and  influence  of  local  buyers 
is  in  favor  of  a  light  or  deficient 
covering.  A  general  improvement  in 
the  amount  and  quality  of  covering 
of  the  bales  of  American  cotton, 
which  are  now  more  poorly  protected 
than  those  from  any  other  part  of  the 
world,  would,  in  time,  redound  to 
the  profit  of  both  the  farmer  and  the 
spinner  (Fig.  160). 

The  round  bale,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  usually  covered  very  completely 
with  cotton  cloth,  which  affords 
satisfactory  protection.  Moreover, 
the  round  bale  is  dense  and  requires 

no  further  compression.  But  for  various  reasons  the  round  bale 
has  not  been  able  to  come  into  general  use  in  the  face  of  opposi- 
tion in  the  interest  of  compress  men  and  manufacturers  of  square- 
bale  presses.  The  round  bale  usually  weighs  about  250  pounds, 
or  half  as  much  as  the  square  bale. 

343.  The  cotton  gin.  —  There  are  two  main  types  of 
gins,  roller  and  saw  gins.  The  former  are  used  in  ginning 
Sea  Island  cotton,  the  naked  seeds  of  which  are  easily 

2B 


FIG.     160.  —  FOREIGN    AND 
AMERICAN  COTTON  BALES. 

Showing  on  the  right  the 
inferior  covering  and  torn 
condition  of  an  American 
bale,  in  contrast  with  the 
better  covering  of  the  foreign 
bale  on  the  left. 


370  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

separated  by  rollers  from  the  lint.     This  general  type  of 
gin  has  been  in  use  in  India  for  centuries. 

The  saw  gin,  employed  to  gin  short-staple  cotton,  is  a 
modern  machine,  which  has  been  second  to  no  other  agri- 
cultural invention  in  its  effects  on  the  world's  wealth, 
commerce,  and  comfort.  The  saw  gin  has  made  possible 
the  South's  greatest  industry,  —  cotton  culture,  —  and  has 
supplied  with  fleecy  food  the  textile  industries  of  all  manu- 
facturing nations.  It  was  invented  by  Whitney  and 
Holmes  abput  1792.  Before  that  time  a  laborer  with  his 
fingers  separated  about  one  pound  of  lint  cotton  per  day. 

A  single  gin  of  average  size  accomplishes  the  work  of  about 
4000  such  laborers.  Within  one  hundred  years  after  its  inven- 
tion the  saw  gin  made  possible  a  four-hundred-fold  increase  in 
the  cotton  crop  of  the  United  States. 

The  saw  gin  is  also  used  in  ginning  long-staple  upland  cotton ; 
but  to  do  this  without  injury  to  the  staple,  the  usual  speed  of 
the  saws  should  be  greatly  decreased. 

When  long-staple  upland  is  ginned,  care  should  first  be  taken 
to  remove  from  the  gin  the  roll  of  cotton  left  by  the  preceding 
bale  of  short-staple ;  for  the  mixing  of  even  a  little  of  this  with 
long-staple  cotton  greatly  lowers  the  selling  value  of  the  latter. 
This  is  because  the  spinning  machinery  in  any  one  mill  is  arranged 
for  a  fiber  of  a  definite  length  ;  the  admixture  of  fibers  of  widely 
different  lengths  results  in  loss  to  .the  spinner,  either  by  fibers 
wasted  or  by  the  making  of  thread  of  undesirable  quality. 

344.  Care  of  baled  cotton.  —  Since  cotton  does  not 
readily  absorb  large  amounts  of  moisture,  farmers  and 
warehousemen  often  leave  bales  of  cotton  exposed  for 
weeks  or  months  to  the  weather  (Fig.  161).  This  results 
in  darkening  and  weakening  the  fibers  in  the  outer  layers, 
and  consequently  in  a  decreased  selling  value.  Cotton 


COTTON  HARVESTING 


371 


bales  should  be  kept  continuously  under  shelter.     If  it 
becomes  necessary  to  leave  them  uncovered,  they  should 


FIG.  161.  —  COTTON  BALES  LEFT  UNPROTECTED  FROM  RAIN. 

rest  on  poles  or  timbers  laid  on  the  ground,  so  that  no  part 
of  the  cotton  bale  touches  the  moist  soil. 

345.  Compressing.  —  Most  cotton  that  is  to  be  ex- 
ported, or  transported  great  distances,  is  first  shipped  to 
"  compresses,"  where  the 
size  of  the  bale  is  still 
further  reduced  by  the 
application  of  enormous 
pressure  (Fig.  162). 

In  some  processes  now 
coming  into  use,  cotton, 
as  soon  as  ginned,  is 

immediately    compressed    FIG.  162.- SIDE  VIEW  OF  COTTON  BALES. 

into  bales  of  very  great  ^^pS^SS^1^^ 

density  ready  for  export,     right,  ordinary  compressed  bale. 


872 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


One  great  advantage  of  thus  compressing  it  at  the  gin  i& 
the  more  complete  and  careful  covering  of  the  bale  with 
new,  closely  woven  cloth  (Fig.  163).  On  the  other  hand, 


FIG.  163.  —  BALES  FROM  A  GIN  COMPRESS. 

the  ordinary  compress  utilizes  a  part  of  the  coarse,  heavy, 
and  usually  cut  or  torn  covering  that  was  originally  placed 
on  the  bale  at  the  gin. 

346.  Commercial  classes  or  grades  of  cotton.  —  Cotton 
is  bought  and  sold  according  to  quality  or  grade.  When 
farmers  sell,  unless  the  number  of  bales  be  very  large,  a 
decision  as  to  the  grade  or  quality  is  usually  made  by  the 
buyer,  the  seller  being  ignorant,  as  a  rule,  of  the  exact 
quality  of  cotton  that  he  is  selling.  To  better  enable 
farmers  to  know  what  grade  of  cotton  they  sell,  most 
agricultural  colleges  in  the  cotton-belt  now  employ  ex- 


COTTON  MARKETING  373 

perts  to  give  instruction  in  cotton-classing  to  those  stu- 
dents who  are  pursuing  an  agricultural  course. 

In  large  transactions,  especially  between  business  firms 
or  corporations,  experts  representing  both  parties  pass 
judgment  on  the  grade,  and  any  difference  in  classification 
is  arbitrated  by  disinterested  experts. 

The  classing  of  cotton  cannot  be  learned  without  prac- 
tice under  an  expert,  and  never  very  quickly.  The  basis 
or  starting  point  is  middling  cotton.  Contracts  are  based 
on  this  grade,  and  if  other  grades  are  delivered,  the  differ- 
ence in  grade  is  settled  in  cash.  The  seven  principal  or 
''  full  "  grades  of  cotton,  mentioned  in  order  of  value,  are 
the  following :  — 

(1)  Fair  (4)  Middling 

(2)  Middling  fair  (5)  Low  middling 

(3)  Good  middling  (6)  Good  ordinary 

(7)  Ordinary 

Between  each  pair  of  the  full  grades  mentioned  above, 
are  the  "  half  grades,"  designated  by  prefixing  the  word 
"  strict  "  to  the  name  of  the  next  lower  grade ;  thus 
strict  middling  is  a  half  grade  better  than  middling. 

In  the  larger  markets  use  is  also  made  of  the  "  quarter 
grades,"  indicated  by  prefixing  the  word  "  fully "  or 
"  barely  "  before  the  term  indicating  the  grade. 

The  grades  "  fair  "  and  "  middling  fair  "  are  compara- 
tively rare.  The  greater  part  of  the  crop  of  the  Southern 
States  usually  consists  of  the  following  grades  and  half 
grades  arranged  in  order  of  value  :  — 

Strict  good  middling,  Strict  middling, 

Good  middling,  Middling. 


374  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

In  years  when  continued  rains  occur  during  the  fall, 
the  crop  may  consist  largely  of  the  following  still  lower 
grades  :  — 

Strict  low  middling, 

Low  middling. 

The  grade  of  cotton  is  determined  by  a  number  of  con- 
siderations, which  have  somewhat  different  weights  in 
different  markets.  In  general,  the  grade  depends  prin- 
cipally upon  (1)  the  abundance  of  trash,  (2)  the  color  of 
the  fiber,  and  (3)  the  amount  of  "  nep,"  or  tangled,  im- 
mature fibers.  In  general,  the  grades  from  best  to  lowest 
are  supposed  to  express  in  some  measure  a  decreasing 
percentage  of  waste  material  in  spinning. 

The  preferred  color  is  snow  white  or  slightly  creamy, 
that  is,  with  the  faintest  suggestion  of  a  yellowish  cast. 
In  this  matter  of  color,  different  markets  vary.  All  mar- 
kets, however,  rate  low  the  samples  of  cotton  which  pos- 
sess even  the  faintest  suggestion  of  blue,  which  is  a  qual- 
ity usually  due  to  long  exposure  of  the  open  cotton  to  the 
weather,  and  hence  an  indication  of  weakness  of  fiber. 

Strange  as  it  may  seem,  length  of  fiber  does  not  usually 
greatly  influence  the  grade.  But  this  does  determine 
the  price ;  length  of  staple  is  considered  as  "  spinning 
quality  "  or  "  character,"  and  is  independent  of  the  grade. 
Thus  there  is  middling  cotton  of  the  ordinary  short-staple 
kind,  middling  "  benders,"  and  middling  long  staple,  the 
three  selling  at  widely  different  prices. 

347.  Tinges  and  stains.  —  If  lint  cotton  shows  patches 
of  faint  color,  it  is  designated  as  "  tinged  " ;  if  the  color 
is  decided  and  distinct,  it  is  classed  as  "  stained."  Both 


COTTON   MARKETING  375 

tinges  and  stains  are  usually  due  to  contact  with  red  or 
other  strongly  colored  soil  or  to  injured  bolls.  The  price 
of  stains  is  somewhat  below  that  of  tinges,  and  consider- 
ably below  the  price  of  unstained  or  white  cotton  of  other- 
wise the  same  grade.  This  emphasizes  the  folly  of  allow- 
ing pickers  to  mix  with  white  cotton  the  stained  locks 
that  are  usually  found  lying  on  the  ground. 

348.  Differences  in  value  between  the  commercial 
grades.  —  There  is  no  fixed  difference  in  the  value  of  any 
two  grades.  The  demand  determines  this  difference, 
which  varies  from  year  to  year.  Usually  the  following 
general  statements  hold  true  :  — 

(1)  The  difference  in  price  between  any  two   adjacent 
grades  of  good  cotton  is  less  than  between  any  two  of  the 
lower  adjacent  grades. 

(2)  When  the  greater  part  of  any  year's  crop  consists 
of  the  lower  grades,  the  difference  in  price  in  favor  of  the 
upper  grades  is  greater  than  usual,  because  of  the  strong 
competition,  under  these  conditions,  for  the  small  amount 
of  cotton  of  the  upper  grades. 

(3)  As  the  average  price  of  cotton  rises,  the  difference 
in    price    between    grades    increases,    because    the    lower 
grades  entail  a  larger  percentage  of  waste  in  spinning  than 
do  the  better  grades ;   this  waste  can  ill  be  afforded  when 
even   low-grade    cotton    sells    at    a    comparatively    high 
price. 

The  following  categories  give  examples  of  approximate  differ- 
ences in  price  that  frequently  prevail  among  the  usual  grades 
and  half  grades.  The  (+)  sign  indicates  a  price  in  cents  per  pound 
above  that  of  middling,  while  the  (— )  sign  indicates  that  the 
price  is  below  the  middling  quotations :  — 


376  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

Good  middling +  f  cent 

Strict  middling +  T\  cent 

Middling 0  cent 

Strict  low  middling —   \  cent 

Low  middling _   f  cent 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

As  part  of  the  practice  to  accompany  this  chapter  a  ginnery 
should  be  visited,  and  inspection  made  of  the  parts  of  some  gin 
while  it  is  not  in  motion. 

While  it  is  not  advisable  for  instruction  in  cotton  classing  to 
be  given  by  any  except  experts  of  long  experience  in  cotton 
buying  and  classing,  it  may  be  possible  for  samples  of  middling 
cotton  to  be  procured  by  the  school  and  for  the  pupils  to  become 
somewhat  familiar  with  its  characteristics. 

College  classes  will  doubtless  be  instructed  by  an  expert,  who 
will  need  a  complete  set  of  specimens,  or  types,  which  can  usually 
be  purchased  from  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

LITERATURE 

HUNT,  T.  F.    Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America,  pp.  364-378. 

New  York,  1907. 

BURKETT,  C.  W.,  and  POE,  C.  H.     Cotton.    New  York,  1906. 
TOMPKINS,  D.  A.    Cotton  and  Cotton  Oil.    Charlotte,  N.C.,  1901 . 
ROBINSON,  T.  A.     Classing  Cotton.     Stillwater,  Okla.,  1909. 
MILLER,  T.  S.     The  American  Cotton  System.     Flat,  Texas. 
HAMMOND,  HARRY.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui. 

No.  33,  pp.  264-268  and  351-384. 
EARLE,  D.  E.      Cotton    Grading.      Clemson    (S.C.)   Agr.  Col. 

Exten.  Work,  Vol.  IV.,  Bui.  No.  2. 


CHAPTER   XXII 
COTTON  —  HISTORY   AND    STATISTICS 

COTTON  appears  to  be  a  native  of  the  tropical  parts  of 
both  hemispheres.  The  cotton  plant  was  grown  in  India 
many  centuries  before  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era. 
Until  about  a  century  ago,  India  continued  to  produce 
most  of  the  world's  supply  of  cotton;  it  now  ranks  as 
second  only  to  the  United  States  in  the  amount  of  cotton 
produced.  Gradually  the  cultivation  of  cotton  spread 
from  India  until  at  least  small  areas  were  grown  in  Egypt 
and  other  parts  of  northern  Africa,  in  Spain  (where  cotton 
was  probably  introduced  by  the  Moors),  and  in  Italy. 

Egypt,  now  the  third  largest  producer  of  cotton  in  the 
world,  probably  learned  cotton  culture  at  a  much  later 
date  than  did  the  inhabitants  of  India. 

England,  which  now  manufactures  more  cotton  than 
any  other  country,  apparently  did  not  manufacture  cotton 
cloth  until  about  the  seventeenth  century. 

349.  History  in  America.  —  Columbus  found  cotton 
growing  in  the  West  Indies  in  1492,  as  did  Cortez  in  Mexico 
in  1519.  Indeed,  at  that  time  cotton  constituted  the 
principal  clothing  of  the  natives  of  Mexico.  A  few  years 
later  explorers  found  cotton  growing  in  Peru  and  Brazil. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  American  Indians  in- 
habiting what  now  constitutes  the  cotton-growing  states 
of  the  Union  appear  to  have  been  without  cotton.  But 

377 


378 


SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 


their  contemporaries  of  nearly  all  nationalities  to  the 
southward  grew  and  used  this  plant  in  countries  where  in 
modern  times  its  culture  has  made  relatively  little  progress. 
Cotton  manufacturing  was  greatly  stimulated  by  the 
inventions  of  Arkwright,  Crompton,  Cartwright,  and  Watt 


FIG.  164.  —  THE  PROPELLING  MECHANISM  OF  AN  OLD  HORSE-POWER  GIN. 

Showing  large  wheels  with  wooden  cogs.      (By  permission  of  D.  A. 
Tompkins.) 

in  the  eighteenth  century.  To  supply  the  demand  for 
raw  cotton  thus  stimulated,  cotton  culture  was  extended 
in  India,  along  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  in 


COTTON   STATISTICS  379 

Brazil.  At  that  time  the  southern  part  of  the  United 
States  was  producing  only  a  few  bales  for  export  and  not 
enough  to  supply  its  own  people  with  cotton  clothing. 

In  1764  the  American  colonies  shipped  eight  "  bags  " 
of  cotton  to  Liverpool,  and  this  probably  represented  the 
entire  export  of  that  year  from  the  American  colonies. 

350.  The  invention  of  the  cotton  gin.  —  In  1793,  Eli 
Whitney,  then  living  in  South  Carolina,  applied  for  a  pat- 
ent on  a  saw  gin.    Prior  to  that  time,  hand-picking  was  the 
rule,  and  only  a  rude  form  of  roller  gin  was  known.     The 
immediate  effect  of  the  invention  of  Whitney's  saw  gin  was 
greatly  to  increase  the  production  of  American  cotton.     In 
the  period  of  116  years,  from  the  invention  of  Whitney's 
gin  to  1908,  the  cotton  crop  produced  in  the  United  States 
increased  so  that  it  was  nearly  six  hundred  times  as  large 
at  the  end  as  at  the  beginning  of  this  period. 

Before  the  general  introduction,  in  the  last  quarter  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  of  public  ginneries  operated  by 
steam,  practically  all  of  the  crop  was  ginned  on  small  plan- 
tation gins,  propelled  by  six  or  eight  mules  driven  in  a 
circle  (Fig.  164). 

351.  Value  and  extent  of  the  American  cotton  crop.  — 
The  American  cotton  crop  is  usually  between  11,000,000 
and  13,000,000  bales.     The  area  of  cotton  picked  in  1909 
was  estimated  at  30,938,000  acres.     The  lint  and  seed  of 
a  single  crop  are  usually  worth  about  $750,000,000.     Less 
than  two  thirds  of  the  lint  is  exported.     Cotton  shipped 
abroad,  together  with  cotton-seed  oil  and  meal,  annually 
brings  into  the  United  States  about  $500,000,000,  or  more 
money  than  foreign  nations  send  into  this  country  for  any 
other  single  crop.     Moreover,  the  remainder  of  the  crop 


380  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

made  into  cloth  in  the  United  States  supports  one  of  the 
most  important  American  manufacturing  industries,  the 
cotton  textile  industry. 

Year  by  year,  cotton  is  coming  into  wider  use.  Pro- 
duction and  consumption  have  both  rapidly  increased. 
The  following  table  shows  how  rapidly  the  cotton  pro- 
duction of  the  United  States  has  increased :  — 

YEAR  BALES  PRODUCED 

1790  8,889 

1810 269,360 

1830  1,038,847 

1850 .     .     .  2,454,442 

1870  4,352,317 

1890  8,652,597 

1908  . 13,432,131 

The  production  of  cotton  in  the  United  States  did  not 
permanently  rise  above  1,000,000  bales  until  1832,  nor 
above  3,000,000  bales  until  1851.  The  crop  in  round 
numbers  was  about  4,000,000  for  each  of  the  three  years 
preceding  the  Civil  War.  During  this  war  cotton  culture 
was  largely  discontinued,  the  production  dropping  to 
300,000  bales  in  1864. 

Not  until  1875  did  the  annual  cotton  crop  remain  per- 
manently above  4,000,000  bales. 

From  the  last  table,  it  may  be  seen  that  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  past  century  the  annual  cotton  crop  of 
the  United  States  has  practically  doubled  every  twenty 
years.  In  very  recent  years  the  rate  of  increase  has  been 
slower.  Neither  the  world's  market  for  cotton  goods 
nor  the  productive  capacity  of  the  Southern  cotton  fields 
has  nearly  reached  its  limit. 


COTTON  STATISTICS 


381 


352.  Production   of   cotton   seed.  —  For  each  bale  of 
500  pounds  there  is  usually  produced  a  half  ton  of  cotton 
seed.     The  value  of  the  seed  produced  in  1908  has  been 
estimated1  at  more  than  $92,000,000.     More  than  half 
of  the  cotton  seed  pro- 
duced are  manufactured 

into  cotton-seed  oil, 
meal,  cake,  hulls,  and 
linters,  —  the  latter  be- 
ing a  very  short,  low- 
priced  fiber  adhering  to 
the  seed  after  ginning. 
The  remainder  of  the 
crop  is  used  as  food  for 
cattle,  as  seed  for  plant- 
ing, and  as  fertilizer. 

353.  Production    by   , 

FIG.   165.  —  PERCENTAGE  OF  THE  TOTAL 

States.  — Only     ten        AMERICAN  CROP  OF  COTTON  GROWN  IN 

American  states  produce      EACH  STATE  IN  1908- 
large  amounts  of  cotton  (Fig.  165) .    These  are  the  following, 
named  in  order  according  to  the  average  percentage   of 
the  crops  of  1906,  1907,  1908  produced  in  each  state. 


STATE                      /«*  CENT  °P 
AMERICAN  CROP 

Texas  27  0 

STATE                      /ER  CEN^OF 
AMERICAN  CROP 

Arkansas  .                   7.3 

Georgia    ....  14.3 
Mississippi    .     .     .  12.4 
Alabama       .     .     .    9.8 
South  Carolina  .     .    8.5 

Oklahoma     ...    6.6 
Louisiana      .     .     .    5.7 
North  Carolina      .    4.9 
Tennessee     .     .     .    2.5 

Since  Figure  165  gives  the  percentages  for  only  one  year,  while 
the  table  states  the  average  results  for  three  years,  the  latter 

1 U.  S.  Bur.  Census,  Bui.  No.  100. 


382 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


be  regarded  as  more  reliable.  Students  will  find  it  interesting  to 
make  three-year  averages  of  the  crops  of  still  later  years  in  order 
to  note  the  tendency  for  cotton  culture  to  increase  in  certain 
states  and  to  decrease  in  others. 

Other  states  together  produce  about  1  per  cent  of  the  crop. 
In  most  of  the  states  named  above,  cotton  is  the  most  valuable 
sale  crop  produced.  The  important  cotton-growing  states 
embrace  less  than  one  fourth  of  the  area  of  the  United  States. 
Yet  this  small  part  of  the  country  furnishes  the  most  valuable 
article  of  export  from  the  farms  of  the  nation.  . 

Within  the  past  few  years  the  extension  of  cotton  culture  in 
Oklahoma  has  proceeded  more  rapidly  than  in  any  other  state, 
thus  raising  this  state  to  a  higher  position  than  it  occupies  in  the 
above  table. 

Reports  of  cotton  ginned  each  year. — Both  the  Census  Bureau 
of  the  United  States  and  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  of  the  National 
Department  of  Agriculture  devote  much  attention  to  the  gather- 
ing of  statistics  relative  to  the  production  of  cotton.  Cotton  crops 
grown  in  1909,  1908,  and  1907,  expressed  in  running  bales  and 
in  equivalent  500-pound  bales,  are  given  in  the  following  table 
(Crop  Reporter,  Apr.,  1910). 


RUNNING  BALES  l 

EQUIVALENT  500-POUND  BALES 

STATE 

1909 

1908 

1907 

1909 

1908 

1907 

United  States    . 

10,363,240 

13,432,131 

11,325,882 

10,290,395 

13,587,306 

11,375,461 

Alabama  .     . 

1,071,985 

1,360,601 

1,133,285 

1,056,097 

1,374,140 

1,132,966 

Arkansas  .     . 

715,670 

1,020,704 

770,214 

729,329 

1,058,089 

793,415 

Florida     .     . 

62,711 

71,923 

57,736 

54,951 

63,221 

50,711 

Georgia    .     . 

1,897,761 

2,026,999 

1,901,576 

1,849,003 

1,980,077 

1,855,789 

Louisiana 

268,800 

481,979 

679,782 

263,909 

486,350 

694,066 

Mississippi   . 

1,106,170 

1,668,461 

1,478,689 

1,117,287 

1,704,972 

1,504,303 

North  Carolina 

647,747 

701,356 

652,930 

613,799 

663,167 

619,650 

Oklahoma     . 

571,370 

705,200 

870,238 

563,170 

706,815 

882,984 

South  Carolina 

1,160,167 

1,242,012 

1,186,672 

1,122,479 

1,195,235 

1,142,244 

Tennessee     . 

248,778 

349,525 

277,114 

255,193 

359,859 

286,301 

Texas  .     .     . 

2,549,417 

3,724,575 

2,267,293 

2,602,356 

3,913,084 

2,360,478 

AH  other  States 

62,664 

78,796 

50,353 

62,822 

82,297 

52,554 

1  Counting  round  as  half  bales  and  including  linters. 


COTTON  STATISTICS  383 

"  The  statistics  in  this  report  for  1909  are  subject  to  slight 
corrections.  Included  in  the  figures  for  1909  are  49,448  bales, 
which  ginners  and  delinters  estimated  would  be  turned  out  after 
the  time  of  the  March  canvass.  Round  bales  included  are 
150,690  for  1909  ;  242,305  for  1908  ;  and  198,549  for  1907.  Sea- 
island  bales  included  are  94,566  for  1909  ;  93,858  for  1908  ;  and 
86,895  for  1907.  Linter  bales  included  are  314,597  for  1909; 
346,126,  for  1908;  and  268,060  for  1907.  The  average  gross 
weight  of  the  bale  for  the  crop,  counting  round  as  half  bales  and 
including  linters,  is  496.5  pounds  for  1909,  compared  with  505.8 
for  1908  and  502.2  for  1907.  The  number  of  ginneries  operated 
for  the  crop  of  1909  is  26,660,  compared  with  27,598  for  1908." 

354.  Distribution  of  cotton  culture  in  the  United  States. 
—  The  northern  line  of  the  cotton-belt  of  the  United  States 
extends  from  near  Norfolk,  Virginia,  in  a  southwesterly 
direction  to  the  northeastern  part  of  Georgia ;  thence  in 
a  northeasterly  direction  through  Tennessee  and  into 
Kentucky,  crossing  the  Mississippi  River  just  south  of 
the  mouth  of  the  Ohio.  Thence  the  line  extends  almost 
directly  west  through  the  southern  part  of  Missouri, 
excluding  the  northwestern  part  of  Arkansas.  The  cot- 
ton-belt includes  practically  all  of  Oklahoma  and  all  of 
Texas  except  the  extreme  western  part.  Small  isolated 
areas  producing  small  amounts  of  cotton  are  found  in  the 
irrigated  regions  of  New  Mexico,  California,  and  other 
parts  of  the  Southwest. 

Within  the  territory  mapped  as  constituting  the  cotton- 
belt,  a  large  proportion  of  the  counties  produce  only  a  few 
thousand  bales.  These  areas  in  which  cotton  is  a  relatively 
unimportant  crop  are,  (1)  the  country  along  the  northern 
edge  of  the  cotton-belt,  especially  in  mountainous  sections ; 
(2)  parts  of  the  country  on  the  Gulf  coast  where  rice, 
sugar-cane,  truck  crops,  and  forest  products  supplant 


384 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


cotton ;  and  (3)  the  extreme  western  part  of  the  cotton- 
belt,  where  the  slight  rainfall  prevents  the  extensive  culti- 
vation of  this  crop. 

355.  The  principal  foreign  cotton-producing  countries. 
• —  The  United  States  produces  about  two  thirds  of  the 
supply  of  cotton  used  in  the  world's  mills.  Next  to  the 

United  States, 
with  its  twelve 
to  thirteen  mil- 
lion bales  per 
year,  comes  In- 
dia with  an  an- 
nual crop  of 
about  3,000,000 
bales,  and  Egypt 
with  about 
1,300,000  bales. 
356.  Countries 
producing  small 
quantities  of  cot- 
ton.— Next,  with 

FIG.  166.  —  PERCENTAGE  OF  WORLD'S  MILL  SUPPLY  much  smaller 
OF  COTTON  CONTRIBUTED  BY  EACH  COUNTRY  IN  quantities,  come 
1908.  -A  .  ,  ., 

Russia    and    its 

Asiatic  provinces,  China,  Brazil,  Mexico,  Peru,  Turkey, 
and  Persia  (Fig.  166). 

If  account  were  taken  of  the  unknown  quantities  of 
cotton  that  never  reach  the  mills,  but  that  are  converted 
into  cloth  in  the  homes  of  the  people  of  China,  the  Celestial 
Empire  would  probably  rank  above  Egypt  as  a  cotton- 
producing  country. 


COTTON  HISTORY  385 

357.  Competition  in  cotton  culture.  —  It  is  often  said 
that  the  United  States  has  a  practical  monopoly  of  cotton 
culture.  This  is  largely  true,  but  changing  conditions  in 
all  parts  of  the  world  make  it  possible  for  the  foreign 
grower  of  cotton  to  become  a  more  formidable  competitor 
of  the  American  cotton  producer  than  has  been  the  case 
in  the  past. 

The  following  facts  suggest  the  possibility  of  constantly 
increasing  competitipn  from  abroad  :  — 

(1)  Great  efforts  have  been  made  during  the  past    few 
years,  especially  by  the  British  and  German  governments 
in  their  African  possessions,  to  build  up  centers  of  cotton 
production.    These  attempts,  unlike  those  made  during  the 
Civil  War,  were  made  in  countries  believed  to  have  climatic 
conditions  well  suited  to  the  growth  of  the  cotton  plant. 
In  some  of  these  countries,  notably  in  German  East  Africa, 
British  East  Africa,  and  Uganda,  these  efforts  are  resulting 
in  a  rapid  increase  each  year  in  the  number  of  bales  pro- 
duced, which  suggests  that  the  climatic  and  other   con- 
ditions are  favorable. 

(2)  A  high  price  for  American  cotton  always  stimulates 
foreign  cotton  production.     The  American  farmer  expects 
high  prices  for  cotton  in  the  future,  partly  because  of  the 
injury  inflicted  on  the  American  crop  each  year  by  the 
boll-weevil  in  its  eastward  march.     The    probable  high 
prices  .would  have  the  effect  of  increasing  cotton  produc- 
tion in  Africa  and  Asia. 

(3)  Improvement  in  the  methods  of  cultivation  in  India 
can  greatly  increase  the  cotton  production  of  that  coun- 
try.    Extension   of   the   government's   irrigation   system 
will  have  the  same  effect.     Improvement  in  the  quality 

2c 


386  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

of  Indian  fiber  is  possible.  Moreover,  even  a  cotton  with 
very  short  staple,  as  that  of  India,  is  indirectly  in  competi- 
tion with  ordinary  American  cotton ;  for,  being  cheaper,  it 
is  used  for  many  purposes  where  a  staple  of  greater  length 
could  be  employed.  In  1910  (as  a  result  of  a  short  Ameri- 
can crop,  with  consequent  high  prices)  a  small  amount  of 
Indian  cotton  was  imported  by  American  mills. 

(4)  In  Egypt  the  government  is  extending  the  irriga- 
tion system,  thus  increasing  the  area  of  cultivated  land, 
and  making  possible  even  larger  yields  per  acre  by  reason 
of  more  frequent  irrigation.  However,  Egyptian  cotton 
is  not  directly  in  competition  with  American  short  staple. 

On  the  other  hand,  among  the  facts  which  suggest  the 
freedom  of  the  American  producer  from  serious  rivalry  by 
the  foreign  cotton  grower  are  the  following :  — 

(1)  Stimulated  by  the  high  prices  of  cotton  prevailing 
during  and  just  after  the  Civil  War,  great  efforts  were 
made  in  numerous  foreign  countries  to  stimulate  the  pro- 
duction of  cotton.     As  a  rule  these  attempts  were  unsuc- 
cessful. 

(2)  The  southern  part  of  the  United  States  is  believed 
to  be  the  only  very  large  area  of  country  having  climatic 
conditions  throughout  its  entire  extent  exactly  suited  to 
the  cotton  plant. 

(3)  India,  the  second  in  rank  among  cotton  countries, 
produces  chiefly  a  staple  shorter  than  the  American,  and 
hence  not  generally  used  by  the  same  mills. 

(4)  The  cultivated  part  of  Egypt  is  a  country  of  limited 
area;    moreover,  the  staple  produced  is  longer  than  the 
staple  of  the  bulk  of  the  American  crop,  and  hence  is  used 
in  different  mills  and  for  different  purposes. 


COTTON  HISTORY  387 

358.  Program  for  the  American  cotton  grower.  —  The 

best  steps  for  the  American  cotton  grower  to  take  in  order 
to  meet  any  foreign  competition  that  the  future  may 
bring  forth  consist  (1)  in  producing  cotton  by  more  inten- 
sive methods,  which  lowers  the  cost  of  producing  each 
pound  of  lint,  (2)  in  more  largely  employing  machinery 
in  the  cultivation  and  harvesting  of  this  crop,  and  (3)  in 
improving  the  usual  wasteful  and  slovenly  method  of 
covering  and  handling  American  bales. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

From  the  latest  United  States  Census  Reports  on  Agriculture, 
students  should  calculate  :  — 

(a)  The  proportion  of  the  total  crop  produced  by  their  state ; 
(6)  The  proportion  of  the  crop  of  their  state  produced  by  their 
county ; 

(c)  A  list  of  the  ten  counties  in  their  state  producing  the  great- 

est number  of  bales  ; 

(d)  The  average  yield  per  acre  of  lint  cotton  in  the  United 

States. 

(e)  The  average  yield  per  acre  of  lint  cotton  in  five  selected 

counties  in  their  state. 

LITERATURE 

BURKETT,  C.  W.,  and  POE,  C.  H.     Cotton,  pp.  13-74,  301-329. 

New  York,  1906. 

U.  S.  Census  Bur.     Latest  Publications  on  Agriculture. 
U.  S.  Census  Bur.     Buls.  Nos.  100,  107  and  later. 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  33,  pp.  13-66,  266- 

270. 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  of  Statistics,  Bui.  No.  16  and  later. 


CHAPTER   XXIII 
COTTON  — INSECT   ENEMIES 

THE  most  destructive  insects  attacking  the  flowers  or 
bolls  are  the  boll-worm  and  the  Mexican  cotton  boll- 
weevil. 

Among  the  insects  most  injurious  to  the  foliage  are  the 
cotton  caterpillar.  The  cotton  red-spider  also  injures 
the  leaves,  and  on  the  young  seedlings  a  plant-louse  is 
sometimes  troublesome. 

The  roots  are  invaded  by  a  very  small  animal  called 
the  nematode  worm.  The  stems  of  the  young  plants  are 
attacked  by  cutworms  and  the  buds  by  cowpea-pod  weevils. 

THE  COTTON  BOLL-WOKM.  —  HELIOTHIS  OBSOLETA 

359.  Life  history  of  boll-worm.  —  The  boll-worm  is 
one  of  the  most  widely  distributed  enemies  of  cotton. 
The  only  parts  of  the  cotton  plant  injured  are  the  squares 
or  bolls,  which  are  eaten  into  and  the  interior  destroyed 
by  the  caterpillar  stage  of  a  moth.  Other  plants  that 
are  much  injured  by  the  same  worm  are  corn  and  to- 
matoes. (See  corn  ear-worm,  paragraph  192.) 

The  parent  is  a  moth  (Fig.  167)  which  may  lay  more 
than  one  thousand  eggs.  These  are  laid  by  preference  on 
the  fresh  silks  of  corn,  so  that  the  young  worm,  as  soon  as 
hatched,  may  enter  the  tip  of  the  ear,  where  it  is  commonly 

388 


COTTON  INSECTS 


389 


known  as  the  ear-worm.     Eggs  are  laid  on  all  parts  of  the 
cotton  plant,  but  especially  on  the  leaves.     On  hatching, 
the  young  worms,  which  are  too  small  to  be  easily  seen, 
wander    about    for    a 
few  hours  or  days,  eat- 
ing small  amounts  of 
the  surface   tissue  of 
the  cotton  leaves  and 
of  the  tender  growing 
buds.      This     is     the 
period  in  the  life   of 
the  insect  on   cotton 
when  it  can  be  most 
easily    poisoned    and 
controlled. 

On  becoming  strong 
enough  to  cut  into  a 
boll,  the  worm  destroys 
the  contents  of  one  or 
more  bolls  (Fig.  168). 
On  reaching  full  size, 
it  drops  to  the  ground, 
burrowing  usually  to  a 
depth  of  two  or  three 
inches  below  the  sur- 
face. Here  it  remains  FIG.  167.  —  MOTHS  OF  COTTON  BOLL-WORM 
during  the  pupal  stage  AND  CORN  EAR-WORM- 

/rp-      i  nr\\      u*i      u  Showing  the  variations  in  color  between 

(Fig.  169), while chang-   different  individuals. 
ing  to  a  moth. 

In  most  parts  of  the  cotton  region  there  are  five  genera- 
tions annually  produced  by  the  boll-worm,  the  first  three 


390  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 

of  which  usually 
feed  upon  corn. 
The  first  and  second 
generations  feed  on 
the  young  leaves  in 
the  bud  or  growing 
part  of  the  corn 
plant ;  the  third 
generation  preys 
chiefly  upon  the 
ears  of  corn  in  the 
green  or  roasting- 
ear  condition,  when 
the  insect  is  known 
as  the  corn  ear- 
worm  or  roasting 
ear-worm.  This  in- 
sect prefers  corn  to 
cotton.  Hence  it 
remains  on  corn  as 
long  as  the  ears  are 
green.  After  the 
greater  part  of  the 

FIG.   168.-THE  COTTON  BOLL-WORM  ON  THE  COm   hardens,   USU- 

OUTSIDE  OF  A  COTTON  BOLL.  ally     in    July,    and 

The  mass  of  insect  castings  near  the  top  of  after  the  third  and 

the  picture  suggests  the  injury  already  done  to  more       numerous 

the  interior  of  the  boll. 

generation  of  worms 

appears,  severe  injury  is  done  to  the  squares  and  bolls 
of  cotton. 

360.    Preventive    measures.  —  In    spite    of    the    great 


COTTON  INSECTS 


391 


injury  done  to  cotton,  prevention  or  poisoning  is  seldom 

attempted.     Experiments  have  shown  that  dusting  the 

plants  with  a  light  application  of  Paris  green  or  other 

preparation  of  arsenic  destroys  many  of  the  tiny  worms 

on  the  day  on  which  they  are  hatched  and  before  they  are 

large    enough    to    enter    the 

boll.      For   poisoning  to    be 

most  effective,  it  should  begin 

about  the  time  that  adjacent 

corn  ears  begin  to  harden,  and 

it  may  need  to  be  repeated 

several   times.       The   poison 

adheres  better  if  applied  while 

the  dew  is  on  the  plants. 

The  most  generally  practi- 
cable method  of  reducing  the 
injury  to  cotton  consists  in 
using  corn  as  a  trap  crop. 

Strips  of  corn  should  be  planted  about  the  first  of  June, 
or  at  such  times  as  to  bring  the  corn  into  the  roasting-ear 
condition  about  the  first  of  August.  Then  the  moths 
deposit  their  eggs  on  the  corn  rather  than  on  the  cotton 
plants.  The  trap  crop  of  corn  is  still  more  effective  if  two 
plantings  are  made  at  intervals  of  a  few  weeks,  so  as  to 
furnish  a  continual  supply  of  roasting  ears  during  the 
time  when  moths  are  most  numerous.  These  strips  of 
corn  may  be  planted  on  oat  patches  adjacent  to  the  cotton 
fields,  or  better,  2  to  4  rows  of  corn  may  be  planted  in 
alternation  with  20  to  40  rows  of  cotton.  In  order  for 
the  corn  to  serve  as  a  trap  crop,  it  must  be  planted  late, 
and  not  at  the  time  when  the  cotton  is  planted. 


FIG.  169.  —  PUPAL  OR  CHRYSALIS 
STAGE  OF  THE  COTTON  BOLL- 
WORM  OR  CORN  EAR-WORM. 


392 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


Such  corn  may  be  cut  and  fed  to  live-stock  when  in  the 
late  roasting-ear  condition ;  or  it  may  be  left  in  the  field  as 

usual.  In  this 
latter  case  corn 
is  still  help- 
ful in  reduc- 
ing the  num- 
ber of  b  o  1 1- 


worms 


since 


it  attracts  a 
number  of 
worms  to  each 
ear.  Here  they 
devour  each 
other,  leaving 
only  one  or  two 
alive,  instead 
of  many. 

Plowing  in 
late  fall  or 
early  winter 

destroys  the  burrows  (Fig.  170)  in  which  the  insect  passes 
the  winter,  and  turns  the  pupae  up  to  be  killed  by  unfavor- 
able weather. 

THE  MEXICAN  COTTON  BOLL-WEEVIL.  —  ANTHONOMUS 
GRANDIS 

361.  Extent  of  injury.  —  The  boll- weevil  is  the  most 
destructive  insect  enemy  that  has  ever  attacked  cotton 
in  the  United  States.  When  it  first  invades  a  new  region 
it  sometimes  reduces  the  total  production  of  cotton  by 


FIG.    170.  —  PUPA   OF    BOLL-WORM  IN   ITS    UNDER- 
GROUND BURROW. 


COTTON  INSECTS 


393 


about  50  per  cent.  Such  an  enormous  reduction  as  this 
is  not  due  solely  to  the  smaller  amount  of  cotton  produced 
per  acre,  but  is  partly  due  to  reduction  in  acreage.  For- 
tunately in  most  of  the  country  west  of  the  Mississippi 
River,  where  the  boll-weevil  has  been  present  for  a  longer 
time  than  anywhere  else  in  this  country,  farmers,  within 
a  few  years  after  the  arrival  of  this  pest,  have  learned 
to  change  their  methods  so  as  to  regain  a  part  or  all  of  this 
loss.  However,  even  before  the 
boll-weevil  had  extended  beyond 
Texas  and  Louisiana,  the  injury  to 
the  cotton  crop  was  estimated  at 
more  than  $22,000,000  in  one  year. 
362.  Food  of  the  weevil.  —  The 
injury  done  by  this  insect  is  practi- 
cally confined  to  the  squares  and 
bolls.  The  squares  are  decidedly 
preferred,  and  as  long  as  these  are  FlG-  m.-Tmc  MATURE 

BOLL-WEEVIL. 

present  in  abundance  but  little  Note  the  ^0  projections 
damage  is  done  to  the  larger  bolls,  at  the  outer  end  of  the 

TVik  nrpfprpnr>p  for  thp  srmarps  first  J°int  of  the  front  legs' 
inis  prelerence  squares,  (Photo  by  w.  E.  Hinds.) 

rather  than  for  the  older  forms, 

makes  it  possible  for  farmers  to  grow  cotton  in  spite  of 
the  boll-weevil.  This  is  done  by  hastening  the  early  growth 
of  the  plants  so  that  many  bolls  will  form  and  pass  the  danger 
point  before  the  weevils  become  very  numerous.  After  the 
weevils  become  very  abundant  in  August,  they  sometimes 
destroy  every  square  in  a  field,  so  that  no  late  blooms 
appear. 

The  injury  is  effected  both  by  the  mature  weevil  (Fig. 
171),  feeding  from  the  outside  of  the  square  or  boll,  and  bj 


394  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

the  grub  or  larval  stage  within  (Fig.  172).     The  mature  in- 
sect can  live  for  a  short  time  on  the  tender  leaves  or  grow- 


FIG.  172. — COTTON  SQUARE  SHOWING  BOLL- WEEVIL  LARVA  IN  POSITION. 
Natural  size. 

ing  buds  of  the  cotton  plant,  a  fact  which  is  important  to 
remember  in  considering  means  of  combating  this  pest. 

The  cotton  boll-weevil  does  not  eat  any  plant  that  is 
widely  grown  except  cotton.  This  fact  is  utilized  by  de- 
priving the  insect,  late  in  autumn,  of  green  cotton  plants, 
its  only  food. 


COTTON  INSECTS 


395 


363.  Stages  in  the  life  of  the  boll-weevil.  —  In  the  life 
of  the  cotton  boll-weevil,  as  in  that  of  most  other  insects, 
there  are  four  stages.  These  are,  (1)  the  egg ;  (2)  the  lar- 
val, or  grub  stage,  which  is  the  growing  period;  (3)  the 


FIG.  173.  —  PUNCTURED  COTTON  SQUARE. 
Showing  egg  puncture  of  boll-weevil  and  "flaring"  of  bracts. 

pupal,  or  changing  stage,  in  which  this  insect  is  compara- 
tively inactive  and  in  which  no  food  is  taken ;  and  (4)  the 
adult  or  mature  stage,  which,  with  the  boll- weevil,  is  the 
period  of  activity  and  of  egg-laying. 

364.    How  the  injury  is  done.  —  Injury  to  the  forms, 


396  SOUTHEBN  FIELD   CROPS 

or  young  fruits,  of  the  cotton  plant  are  due  both  to  punc- 
tures made  by  the  mature  weevils  for  the  purpose  of  ob- 
taining a  food  supply  for  themselves,  and  to  the  young 
grubs,  which  develop  within  the  square  or  boll  where  the 
egg  has  been  laid  by  the  mature  weevil. 

A  few  days  after  an  egg  has  been  laid  in  a  square,  the 
color  of  the  latter  becomes  paler,  and  the  surrounding  leafy 
parts  flare,  or  spread  outward  (Fig.  173).  The  square  may 
remain  hanging  on  the  plant  or  it  may  drop  to  the  ground, 
carrying  the  larva  or  grub  within.  It  was  found  in  experi- 
ments in  Texas  that  among  the  immature  insects  in  the 
fallen  squares,  about  one  third  developed  into  adult  weevils. 
The  remainder  were  killed  by  their  insect  enemies  or  by 
the  rapid  drying  of  the  squares  where  they  lay  in  strong 
sunlight  on  the  hot  soil. 

The  dead  squares  that  continue  to  hang  to  the  plants 
bring  forth  a  larger  proportion  of  mature  weevils  than 
do  the  fallen  squares,  probably  because  in  the  hanging 
squares  larvae  are  less  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  their 
principal  insect  enemies,  the  ants.  Hence  some  farmers 
attempt  to  brush  off  as  many  of  these  infested  squares  as 
possible,  by  attaching  a  brush,  or  a  stick  wrapped  with 
cloth,  to  the  cultivating  implement.  Some  authorities 
regard  this  as  impracticable. 

The  larvae  developing  within  the  bolls  may  result  in 
the  destruction  of  only  one  lock  or  of  the  entire  boll. 

Feeding  punctures  may  cause  the  square  to  die  or  the 
boll  to  rot. 

365.  Rapid  multiplication.  —  One  of  the  reasons  why 
the  cotton  boll-weevil  is  destructive  is  because  it  multi- 
plies very  rapidly.  The  time  from  the  laying  of  the  eggs 


COTTON  INSECTS  397 

to  the  appearance  of  the  mature  weevil  is  less  than  25 
days.  Hinds  and  Hunter  have  estimated  that  the  average 
time  between  the  egg-laying  period  of  any  two  genera- 
tions is  about  43  days,  and  that  a  single  pair  of  weevils 
coming  from  their  winter  quarters  in  the  latter  part  of 
spring  in  Southern  Texas,  may  there,  before  the  occur- 
rence of  frost,  have  250,000  living  descendants.  In  south- 
ern Texas  there  may  be  as  many  as  five  generations ;  but 
in  the  part  of  the  cotton-belt  farther  north  it  is  probable 
that  the  usual  number  of  generations  averages  four  per 
year. 

366.  Where  the  winter  is  spent.  —  The  boll-weevil 
passes  through  the  winter  in  the  mature  or  weevil  stage. 
Therefore  the  most  effective  means  of  fighting  the  boll- 
weevil  aim  at  reducing  as  low  as  possible  the  number  of 
adult  weevils  that  live  through  the  winter.  Fortunately, 
of  the  weevils  that  go  into  winter  quarters  the  greater 
portion  die  before  spring.  In  Texas  and  Louisiana  the 
percentage  of  weevils  living  through  the  winter  has  varied 
from  less  than  1  per  cent  to  more  than  50  per  cent  of  those 
that  entered  winter  quarters.  The  proportion  of  those 
that  survive  can  be  largely  reduced  by  the  destruction  of 
the  trash  under  which  they  usually  take  shelter  through- 
out the  winter. 

The  hiding  places  preferred  are  :  (1)  in  the  empty  cotton 
burs  and  in  other  litter  in  the  cotton  field ;  (2)  in  the  fallen 
leaves  and  in  the  bark  and  moss  of  the  woods ;  (3)  in  corn 
stalks,  grass,  blackberry  patches,  and  other  litter  or  vege- 
tation, adjacent  to  the  cotton  fields;  and  (4)  around  and 
in  buildings  and  haystacks. 

All  of  this  suggests  the  need  of  plowing  under  deeply, 


398  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

or  otherwise  destroying,  as  much  as  practicable  of  the  litter 
and  vegetation  adjacent  to  cotton  fields  and  the  advisa- 
bility of  keeping  the  fields  in  a  clean  and  neat  condition. 

367.  Principal  preventive  measures.  —  The  boll-weevil 
in  its  different  stages  spends  most  of  its  life  within  the  cot- 
ton forms,  and  when  outside  it  takes  so  little  food  from  the 
surface  of  boll  or  square  or  leaf,  that  the  use  of  poisons 
(except  in  one  special  case,  as  indicated  below)  is  useless. 
The  warfare  against  this  pest  must  be  an  indirect  one, 
and  its  aim  should  be  to  prevent  many  insects  from  living 
through  the  winter. 

When  cold  weather  approaches,  or  on  the  occurrence  of 
a  killing  frost,  boll-weevils  enter  their  winter  quarters 
under  all  sorts  of  trash.  Experiments  have  shown  that 
if  the  weevils  can  be  deprived  of  their  food  for  a  period 
of  several  weeks  before  cold  weather  occurs,  they  will  be 
.so  weakened  that  most  of  them  die  before  spring.  Hence 
the  best  method  of  reducing  the  injury  in  the  next  crop 
of  cotton  consists  in  plowing,  piling,  and  burning  in  Oc- 
tober, or  as  soon  as  possible,  the  old  cotton  stalks  and  all 
litter  adjacent  to  the  cotton  fields.  Even  later  burning  is 
beneficial,  though  to  a  less  extent.  Burning  the  stalks 
and  burs  destroys  the  immature  insects  inside  the  bolls  and 
squares,  destroys  many  of  the  adult  insects,  and  deprives 
the  remainder  of  food  and  shelter. 

Preparatory  to  being  burned,  the  cotton  stalks  are  usu- 
ally uprooted  with  a  double  moldboard  plow.  A  special 
device  for  cutting  the  stalks  below  the  ground  is  shown  in 
Figs.  174  and  175. 

A  less  effective  treatment  consists  in  turning  a  large 
number  of  cattle  into  the  cotton  fields  before  frost,  so  that 


COTTON  INSECTS 


399 


they  may  quickly  consume  all  leaves  and  young  forms; 
this  should  be  followed  by  the  thorough  plowing  under 
of  the  stalks,  so  as  to  prevent  young  sprouts  from  putting 


FIG.  174.  —  COTTON  STALK  CUTTER. 

H,  Steel  blade,  bolted  to  under  side  of -4  X  4  side  piece,  and  projecting 
Is  inches.  (Fully  described  in  Circ.  30,  La.  Crop  Pest  Commission, 
Baton  Rouge,  La.) 

out,  for  the  weevils  are  able  to  subsist  on  these  young 
sprouts.  The  early  destruction  of  cotton  stalks  in  the  fall 
is  advisable,  even  though  one's  neighbors  should  not  prac- 


FIG.  175.  —  SIDE  VIEW  OF  COTTON  STALK  CUTTER. 
H,  Steel  blade. 

tice  it.  However,  the  more  general  this  custom  in  regions 
where  the  boll-weevil  is  present,  the  better  fof  every 
farmer. 

368.    Forcing  the   crop  to   early  maturity.  —  Not  only 
should  the  cotton  grower  reduce  the  number  of  weevils 


400  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CHOPS 

surviving  the  winter  as  directed  above,  but  he  should  also 
force  the  growth  of  the  cotton  plant  as  rapidly  as  practicable. 
The  purpose  in  doing  this  is  to  enable  the  cotton  plants  to 
set  a  large  number  of  bolls  before  many  generations  of  weevils 
have  had  time  to  come  forth.  Bolls  of  rather  large  size 
are  not  seriously  attacked  so  long  as  there  is  an  abundance 
of  squares  for  the  weevils  then  present.  Hence  the  earlier 
bolls  escape  injury,  and  there  should  be  enough  of  these 
to  make  a  satisfactory  yield. 

The  methods  of  forcing  the  cotton  plant  rapidly  for- 
ward are  the  following  :  — 

(1)  The  use  of  varieties  which  set  a  large  proportion  of 
the  bolls  early; 

(2)  The  liberal  use  of  fertilizers  rich  in  phosphoric  acid, 
or  the  growing  of  cotton  on  rather  rich,  well-drained  land. 

(3)  Thorough  preparation  of  the  land  and  frequent  cul- 
tivation of  the  crop ;   and 

(4)  Early  planting. 

369.  Minor  methods  of  combating  the  boll-weevil.  — 
One  of  these  consists  in  poisoning  such  mature  weevils 
as  are  present  on  the  growing  points  or  tender  buds  of  the 
cotton  plants  just  before  the  appearance  of  any  squares. 
Some  of  the  weevils  that  survive  the  winter  spend  a  short 
time  in  eating  these  tender  parts  of  the  cotton  plant. 
The  poison  found  most  effective  is  powdered  arsenate  of 
lead.  This  should  be  applied  at  the  rate  of  2  to  2|- 
pounds  per  acre  and  by  means  of  a  "  powder  gun,"  which 
forces  'the  powder  into  the  growing  tips,  where  the 
weevils  are  feeding  before  the  appearance  of  squares. 
This  poisoning  can  be  done  advantageously  but  once,  and 
only  in  the  few  days  just  before  the  first  squares  appear 


COTTON  INSECTS 


401 


(Fig.  176).  While  it  kills  most  of  the  weevils  then  present, 
other  weevils  continue  to  come  from  their  winter  quarters 
for  several  weeks 
after  the  forma- 
tion of  squares 
begins.  The  use 
of  any  kind  of 
poison  after 
squares  appear 
is  ineffective. 

Where  the  boll- 
weevil  is  present, 
the  space  be- 
tween cotton 
rows  should  be 
increased  so  that 
the  sunshine  may 
more  rapidly  dry 
and  destroy  the 
fallen  squares 
with  the  larvae 
contained  in 
them.  A  culti- 
vator which  col- 
lects the  squares  in  the  "middle"  where  there  is  most 
sunlight,  is  shown  in  Fig.  177. 

For  at  least  a  few  weeks  after  the  appearance  of  the 
weevils,  and  while  there  are  but  few  in  the  fields,  it  is  ad- 
vantageous, where  practicable,  to  pick  the  infested  squares 
from  the  ground  and  from  the  plant.  These  should  be 
burned,  or  else  treated  as  .shown  in  paragraph  371. 
2o 


FIG.  176.  —  COTTON  PLANT  IN  THE  "BUDDING" 
STAGE. 

Only  at  this  stage  can  poison  be  used  against  the 
boll-weevil. 


402  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

370.  Spread  of  the  boll-weevil.  —  Ordinarily  the  adult 
weevil  flies  but  a  few  rods  at  a  time.  However,  when  food 
becomes  scarce  in  the  fall,  distances  of  as  much  as  fifty 
miles  are  traversed  in  a  few  days.  This  fall  migration,  ap- 
parently in  search  of  food,  explains  the  rapid  spread  of 
the  boll-weevil.  The  weevil  usually  advances  about  fifty 
miles  a  year.  However,  in  1909  its  eastward  spread  across 


FIG.  177.  —  THE  HINDS  CHAIN  CULTIVATOR  FOB  TILLAGE  AND  FOR 
DRAWING  THE  FALLEN  SQUARES  TO  THE  WATER-FURROW. 

the  southern  part  of  Mississippi  was  more  than  twice  this 
distance,  bringing  the  weevil  at  the  end  of  1909  to  within 
about  ten  miles  of  the  Alabama  line  in  the  vicinity  of  Mo- 
bile. In  the  fall  of  1910  this  insect  invaded  several  coun- 
ties in  the  southeastern  part  of  Alabama*.  Probably  its 
extension  northward  will  be  somewhat  less  rapid  than  its 
eastward  spread. 

Crossing  the  Rio  Grande  from  Mexico  about  1892  it 
has  persistently  spread  eastward  and  northward.  The 
map  (Fig.  178)  shows  that  by  the  close  of  1909  the  boll- 
weevil  occupied  the  greater  part  of  the  cotton-growing 


COTTON  INSECTS 


403 


404  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

areas  of  Texas  and  Louisiana,  the  southern  portion  of 
Mississippi,  and  the  southern  parts  of  Oklahoma  and 
Arkansas.  It  may  be  expected  to  spread  over  the  entire 
cotton-growing  area  of  the  United  States  within  the  next 
15  to  20  years. 

371,  Insect  enemies  of  the  boll-weevil.  —  The  weevil 
has  fewer  insect  enemies  than  most  crop  pests.  This  is 
probably  because  the  mature  weevil  is  protected  with  a 
hard  coat,  and  because  in  its  stages  of  larva  and  pupa, 
when  not  thus  protected,  it  is  inclosed  within  the  square 
or  boll.  However,  there  are  some  minute  insects  that 
lay  their  eggs  in  the  body  of  the  immature  boll-weevil 
while  the  latter  is  still  in  the  square.  On  hatching,  these 
smaller  insects  cause  the  death  of  the  pest.  These  minute 
parasites  have  not  destroyed  a  large  proportion  of  the  boll- 
weevils  in  Texas,  and  it  remains  to  be  seen  whether  this 
class  of  insects  will  be  more  useful  in  the  moister  climate 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  eastward. 

In  order  to  utilize  these  most  fully,  the  squares  that  may 
be  picked  during  the  few  weeks  after  the  weevils  make 
their  appearance,  instead  of  being  burned,  should  be  placed 
loosely  in  boxes,  one  side  of  which  is  made  of  screen  wire. 
This  should  be  fine  enough  (14  meshes  to  the  inch)  to  pre- 
vent the  escape  of  the  weevils  that  may  hatch ;  however, 
it  will  permit  the  escape  of  their  minute  insect  enemies. 
If  these  cages  are  placed  at  intervals  in  the  cotton  field, 
it  is  claimed  that  these  parasites  will  be  turned  loose  in 
such  quantities  as  to  reduce  appreciably  the  damage  done 
by  the  boll-weevil. 

The  cotton  leaf^worm  or  caterpillar  has  been  until  recently 
a  serious  enemy  of  cotton.  (See  paragraph  376.)  How- 


COTTON  INSECTS  405 

ever,  when  the  boll-weevil  is  present,  the  caterpillar  should 
not  be  poisoned,  but  treated  as  an  enemy  of  the  boll- 
weevil,  and  hence  as  a  friend  of  the  farmer.  This  is  be- 
cause the  cotton  caterpillar,  by  consuming  all  the  foliage 
of  the  cotton  plant,  prevents  the  formation  of  squares  and 
thus  deprives  the  weevil  of  its  food  in  the  fall  at  a  time 
when  starvation  is  most  fatal  to  the  insect. 

372.  General  suggestions  on  farming  after  the  arrival 
of  the  boll-weevil.  —  Unless  there  are  special  hindrances 
to  the  early  maturity  of  the  cotton  crop,  cotton  should 
continue  to  be  grown  at  a  profit  after  the  arrival  of  the 
boll-weevil.  But  this  will  be  possible  only  for  those  farmers 
who  practice  intensive  cotton  culture,  that  is,  such  methods 
as  in  the  absence  of  the  weevil  will  produce  nearly  a  bale 
per  acre.  The  larger  the  yield,  the  greater,  as  a  rule,  is 
the  proportion  of  the  crop  that  matures  early,  and  hence 
that  may  be  expected  to  escape  injury  by  this  pest.  It 
will  be  necessary  to  grow  at  least  as  many  bales  as  at 
present  but  on  a  much  smaller  number  of  acres. 

The  presence  of  the  boll-weevil  causes  farmers  to  pro- 
duce their  supply  of  food  and  forage  and  to  grow  for  sale 
a  greater  variety  of  farm  products  and  live-stock  than 
before  the  coming  of  the  weevil.  This  gives  an  opportunity 
for  rotation  of  crops,  which  enriches  the  soil  and  thereby 
makes  easier  the  production  of  larger  yields  per  acre  of 
cotton.  Rotation  is  also  a  means  of  reducing  the  amount 
of  injury  inflicted  on  the  cotton  plant  -by  the  boll- weevil. 

The  wide  distribution  of  this  insect  may  be  expected 
to  raise  the  price  of  cotton.  This  higher  price,  together 
with  the  more  intensive  methods  of  fertilization  and  cul- 
tivation, and  the  diversification  of  crops,  should  compen- 


406 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


sate  for  the  greater  cost  of  growing  cotton  in  the  presence 
of  the  boll- weevil.  This  insect  brings  about  a  revolution  in 
agricultural  methods.  While  the  first  effects  are  disastrous, 
the  country  in  time  recovers  its  usual  range  of  prosperity. 

373.  Loss  from  burning  cotton  stalks.  —  As  a  means 
of  depriving  the  boll-weevil  of  its  food,  the  burning  of  the 
cotton  stalks  in  the  fall  is  generally  recommended.     This 
decidedly  reduces  the  damage  done  by  the  weevil  to  the 
next  crop  on  the  same  land.    Since  Southern  soils  are  almost 
universally  in  need  of  vegetable  matter,  the  necessity  for 
burning  cotton  stalks  is  to  be  regretted.     Should  thorough 
deep  plowing  under  of  stalks  prove  effective,  it  would  be 
far  preferable.     The  loss  of  vegetable  matter  and  of  plant 
food  by  burning  are  considerable. 

374.  Pounds  of  vegetable  matter,  nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid,  and  potash  in  the  stems,  roots,  and  burs  on  an  acre 
yielding  300  pounds  of  seed  cotton:  — 


AlR-DRT 

VEGETABLE 
MATTER 
LB. 

NITROGEN 
LB. 

PHOSPHORIC 
ACID 
LB. 

POTASH 
LB. 

Analyses  at  Ala. 

Expr.  Sta. 

1097 

7.5 

3.4 

17.5 

Analyses  at  S.C. 

Expr.  Sta. 

11.3 

2.7 

22.7 

Average 

9.4 

3.1 

20.1 

At  the  usual  prices  of  commercial  fertilizers  this  rep- 
resents a  loss  per  acre  by  burning  stalks  of  about  $1.50  for 
nitrogen,  or  a  total  of  about  $2.75  for  all  three  constituents. 
The  humus  and  the  nitrogen  are  completely  lost,  and  the 
potash  and  phosphoric  acid  are  practically  lost,  since  they 
are  concentrated  in  the  spots  where  the  stalks  are  burned. 


COTTON  INSECTS 


407 


Cotton  stalks  should  not  be  burned  except  where  this 
course  is  recommended  as  a  necessity  in  fighting  the  cotton 
boll- weevil.  Then  extra  pains  must  be  taken  to  compen- 
sate for  the  loss  by  introducing  into  the  rotation  at  short 
intervals  some  humus-forming  crop. 


INSECTS  OF  MINOR  IMPORTANCE 

375.  The  cowpea-pod  weevil  (Chalcodermis  ceneus).  — 
This  is  a  small  black  beetle  or  weevil,  with  a  long  snout 
and  marked  with  numerous  tiny  pits,  or  depressions  (Fig. 
179).  It  injures  the 
young  plants,  espe- 
cially the  growing  ter- 
minal buds  and  the 
young  stems.  As  the 
plant  grows  larger 
this  insect  ceases  to 
attack  cotton. 

This  is  the  insect 
most  frequently  mis- 
taken for  the  boll- 
weevil.  Conspicuous 
differences  exist  in  the  shiny,  black  color  and  pitted 
appearance  of  the  cowpea-pod  weevil,  in  contrast  with 
the  brownish  or  grayish  appearance  of  the  boll-weevil, 
which  is  not  conspicuously  pitted. 

Injury  to  cotton  by  the  cowpea-pod  weevil  usually 
starts  in  areas  where  the  previous  crop  was  cowpeas. 
Hence,  in  some  localities  where  this  pest  is  a  serious  one, 
it  may  be  desirable  to  change  the  rotation  that  is  generally 


FIG.  179. — COWPEA-POD  WEEVIL. 


408  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

advisable  on  cotton  farms,  so  as  to  grow  no  cowpeas  just 
before  cotton,  substituting  some  other  legume,  as  velvet 
beans,  or  soybeans,  or  crimson  clover. 

Liberal  fertilization  and  the  use  of  a  little  nitrate  of 
soda  in  the  drill  at  the  time  of  planting  hasten  the  growth 
of  the  young  plant  and  thus  shorten  the  time  during  which 
it  is  subject  to  the  attacks  of  the  cowpea-pod  weevil  and 
of  cutworms.  When  this  insect  is  present  before  cotton  is 
chopped,  a  thick  stand  should  be  left,  to  be  thinned  to  a 
final  stand  after  the  attacks  of  this  insect  have  ceased. 

376.  The  cotton  caterpillar  (Alabama  argillaced) .  —  For- 
merly this  was  the  most  destructive  enemy  of  the  cotton 
plant.  In  recent  decades  the  injury  has  been  infrequent 
and  never  widespread.  The  damage  is  done  by  the  larval 
or  caterpillar  stage  of  a  grayish  moth.  Eggs  are  laid  on 
the  underside  of  the  leaves,  where  the  Iarva3  hatch  and 
devour  the  foliage.  On  reaching  the  proper  degree  of 
maturity  the  Iarva3  fold  the  leaf  together  and  surround 
themselves  with  a  web  in  which  the  pupa  or  chrysalis 
form  of  the  insect  is  passed.  From  the  pupa  emerges  soon 
the  adult  moth  prepared  to  lay  eggs  for  a  new  generation 
of  larvae.  The  insect  passes  the  winter  as  a  moth. 

Complete  protection  is  afforded  by  dusting  or  spraying 
the  plants  with  Paris  green  or  other  preparation  of  arsenic. 
The  most  usual  method  of  applying  the  poison  consists 
in  tying  a  small  sack  of  Paris  green  alone  or  mixed  with 
flour,  on  each  end  of  a  stout  stick  as  long  as  the  rows  are 
wide.  A  man  on  horseback  riding  between  the  rows 
shakes  out  a  cloud  of  dust  above  the  row  on  either  side, 
thus  poisoning  about  20  acres  in  a  day. 

Where  the  cotton  caterpillar  and  the  cotton  boll-weevil 


COTTON  INSECTS  409 

are  both  present,  the  former  may  aid  the  farmer  by  de- 
priving the  boll-weevil  of  its  food. 

377.  The  cotton  red-spider  or  rust  mite    (Tetranychus 
gloveri) .  —  The  reddening  of  the  leaves  of  cotton,   often 
called  "  red  rust,"  is  sometimes  due  to  the  attacks  of  a 
minute  red  mite.     These  tiny  red  insects,  almost  micro- 
scopic in  size,  may  be  seen  on  the  underside  of  the  leaves, 
usually  surrounded  by  a  thin  web.     Their  injury  is  most 
severe  in  wet  weather.     They  are  easily  spread  by  laborers 
or  teams.     If  they  are  discovered   early,   before  many 
plants  have  been  attacked,  the  injured  plants  and  adjacent 
ones  should  be  pulled  and  burned.     Dusting  with  powdered 
sulfur  blown  on  the  underside  of  the  leaves  has  been  recom- 
mended.    However,  treatment  is  seldom  attempted.     As 
soon  as  possible  after  being  picked,  the  cotton  plants  on 
an  infested  field  should  be  deeply  plowed  under. 

378.  Cotton  lice  or  aphids.  —  These  are  the  progeny 
of  small,  soft-bodied  insects  that  suck  the  juices  from  the 
growing  tips  and  leaves  of  the  very  young  cotton  plant. 
They  are  most  troublesome  in  periods  of  cool  weather. 
Treatment  is  not  attempted  ;   yet  any  insecticide  that  kills 
by  contact  would  be  destructive  to  the  insects,  though 
scarcely  practicable. 

379.  Cutworms  (Noctuidce).  —  The  cutworms  are   the 
Iarva3  or  caterpillar  stage  of  certain  night-flying  moths. 
These  caterpillars  cut  down  the  very  young  cotton  plants. 
They  are  most  troublesome  on  land  which  has  grown 
sod  or  weeds  the  previous  year.     By  plowing  such  land 
early  in  the  fall  and  planting  it  late  in  spring,  the  damage 
from  cutworms  is  reduced.     While  treatment  is  not  gen- 
erally regarded  as  necessary,  the  worms  can  be  destroyed 


410  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 

by  the  distribution,  a  little  while  before  planting,  of  a  mix- 
ture of  Paris  green  with  either  moistened  wheat  bran  or 
corn-meal,  or  by  other  kinds  of  poisoned  bait. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

Inspection  of  the  cotton  fields  should  be  made  for  the  pur- 
pose of  observing  any  of  the  insect  pests  here  mentioned  which 
may  be  in  evidence  at  the  time  this  chapter  is  studied,  or  to  note 
the  injuries  resulting  from  their  work. 

In  the  absence  of  such  insects  a  laboratory  .period  should  be 
spent  in  examining  pictures  and  descriptions  of  these  insects 
in  the  publications  cited  below. 

LITERATURE 
Boll-worm. 
BISHOP,  F.  C.,  and  JONES,  C.  R.    U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmer's 

Bui.  No.  290. 

QUAINT ANCE,  A.  L.,  and  BISHOP,  F.  C.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Far- 
mer's Bui.  No.  212. 

Boll-weevil. 
HINDS,  W.  E.    U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Entomology,  Buls.  51  and 

74  ;   Ala.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  146. 

HUNTER,  W.  D.    U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmer's  Bui.  No.  344. 
NEWELL,  W.,  and  others.    Numerous  publications  of  La.  Crop 

Pest  Commission.    Baton  Rouge,  La. 

Cotton  insects  in  general. 
HOWARD,  H.  L.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No. 

33,  pp.  317-350. 

SHERMAN,  F.,  JR.    N.  C.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bui.,  June,  1908. 
SANDERSON,  E.  D.    U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmer's  Bui.  No.  223. 

Numerous  publications  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Entomology ;  of  the  Louisiana  Crop  Pest 
Commission,  Baton  Rouge ;  of  the  Georgia  State  Board  of  En- 
tomology, Atlanta ;  and  of  most  of  the  Experiment  Stations  in 
the  cotton-belt. 


CHAPTER   XXIV 


COTTON  —  FUNGOUS    AND     OTHER    DISEASES    OF 
COTTON 

380.  Cotton  wilt  or  black-root  (Neocosmospora  vasin- 
fecta).  —  This  disease  shows  itself  at  any  time  after  the 
cotton  plants  are  about  6  inches  high.  It  is  most  preva- 


FIG.  180.  —  COTTON  PLANTS  ATTACKED  BY  WILT. 

lent  and  destructive  while  they  are  loaded  with  blooms 
and  bolls.  Some  of  the  diseased  plants  suddenly  wilt,  and 
these  may  die  in  a  few  days  (Fig.  180).  Wilting  is  first 
shown  by  the  young  and  tender  leaves  at  the  top  of  the 
plant.  Other  diseased  plants  show  a  dwarfed,  unhealthy 

411 


412  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

appearance,  and  may  drop  their  leaves  and  die,  or  they  may 
continue  to  live  in  an  unthrifty  condition. 

Cotton  wilt  is  caused  by  a  fungus  growth,  which  enters 
the  plant  from  the  soil  through  the  roots.  This  fungus, 
or  parasitic  plant,  consists  largely  of  threads,  which  stop 
up  the  water-bearing  ducts  in  the  roots  and  stems.  The 
wilting  of  the  leaves  is  due  to  the  cutting 
off  of  their  water  supply  by  the  plugging 
up  of  these  ducts  with  the  threads  of  the 
fungus. 

Cotton  wilt  may  readily  be  detected  by 
cutting  through  the  main  root  or  stem; 
the  layer  just  under  the  bark  is  blackened, 
and  throughout  the  stem  the  cut  ends 
of  the  stopped-up  water-carrying  ducts 
appear  as  small  dark  dots  (Fig.  181). 

381.    Spread  and  persistence  of  wilt.  — 
FIG.  isi. -SECTION  Cotton  wilt  occurs  chiefly  in  the  sandy 

THROUGH  WILTED  ,     ,/    -     , 

AND  HEALTHY  soils  of  the  southern  half  of  the  cotton- 
COTTON  STALKS,     belt.     This  disease  first  appears  in  small 

PUnnt;rigon  Stha  sPots  in  the  fiel(L  U  is  extremely  im- 
stem  attacked  '  by  portant  for  the  farmer  to  recognize  cotton 
Wllt>  wilt  when  it  first  appears  and  while  it 

is  confined  to  these  small  spots,  for  these  diseased  areas 
enlarge  rapidly  every  year  when  cotton  is  planted  on  the 
field.  In  time  the  entire  field  becomes  infected,  and  the 
majority  of  cotton  plants  of  the  ordinary  varieties  die. 
Thus  the  field  soon  becomes  useless  for  the  cultivation  of 
the  common  varieties  of  cotton. 

The  germs  of  the  disease  live  in  the  soil  for  four  or  more 
years,  even  when  no  cotton  is  grown. 


COTTON  DISEASES  413 

382.  Treatment  of  wilt  by  means  of  rotation  of  crops.  — 

In  spite  of  this  long  life  of  the  germ  of  cotton  wilt,  the 
only  effective  treatment  of  the  soil  consists  in  starving 
the  germs.  This  is  done  to  a  considerable  extent  by  keep- 
ing cotton  out  of  the  field  for  three  years ;  a  longer  banish- 
ment of  cotton  still  more  nearly  gets  rid  of  the  disease. 
Meantime  the  field  may  be  used  for  corn,  oats,  grasses, 
the  Iron  variety  of  cowpeas,  and  certain  other  plants. 

It  has  been  found  that  cotton  wilt  is  most  prevalent 
on  soils  which  contain,  not  only  the  germs  of  the  wilt 
fungus,  but  also  the  minute  worms  that  cause  root-knot 
(see  paragraph  385)  on  the  roots  of  cotton  and  of  numerous 
other  plants.  It  is  thought  that  the  wounding  of  the  roots 
of  cotton  by  these  tiny  nematode  worms  more  readily  per- 
mits the  entrance  of  the  germs  of  cotton  wilt.  Hence, 
in  a  field  where  both  troubles  occur,  no  plants  should  be 
grown  on  which  nematode  worms  thrive  and  multiply. 

383.  Use   of   resistant   varieties.  —  Not   every   cotton 
plant  in  a  diseased  spot  dies.     The  plants  that  live  and 
thrive  are  resistant,  and  the  seed  saved  from  them  produce 
plants,  the  majority  of  which  are  resistant.     Thus,  by 
selecting  for  several  generations  healthy  plants  and  grow- 
ing them  each  year  on  diseased  spots,  a  variety  of  wilt- 
resistant  cotton  may  be  bred  up.     This  can  probably  be 
done   with   many   varieties.     However,  present  varieties 
differ  greatly  in  the  degree  to  which  they  resist  cotton 
wilt.     The  varieties   Dixie  and   Dillon  have  been  thus 
bred  up  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
until  they  are  able  to  produce  profitable  crops  in  fields 
that  have  been  ruined  for  most  other  varieties  by  the  pres- 
ence of  this  disease. 


414  SOUTHERN   FIELD   CROPS 

To  maintain  the  wilt  resistance  in  these  or  other  varie- 
ties, it  is  advisable  to  grow  them  on  infected  land  and 
to  continue  the  selection  each  year  from  plants  that  are 
thrifty. 

384.  Cotton   root-rot    (Ozonium).  —  This   disease,    like 
cotton  wilt,  causes  the  sudden  wilting  of  the  plants  while 
engaged  in  forming  fruit.     However,  it  is  confined  to  the 
extreme  western  part  of  the  cotton-belt,  while  cotton  wilt 
is  a  disease  of  the  southeastern  part.     Cotton  root-rot  is 
especially  prevalent  on  the-  stiff,  lime,  "  black-waxy  "  soils 
of   Texas.      It   is    caused   by   a   fungus   that   develops 
threads  both  within  and  upon  the  surface  of  the  roots. 
The  roots  of  diseased  plants  are  covered  by  whitish  threads, 
which  later  become  darker.      Sometimes  wartlike  bodies 
appear  on  the  surface. 

No  treatment  of  seed  or  soil  is  effective.  However,  very 
deep  fall  plowing  and  rotation  of  crops  are  helpful.  In 
such  a  rotation  the  farmer  must  avoid  the  use  of  other 
plants  attacked  by  this  disease,  among  which  are  sweet 
potatoes  and  alfalfa;  among  the  plants  not  subject  to 
this  root-rot  are  all  the  grains  and  grasses. 

385.  Root-knot  (Heteroderaradicicola)  (Fig.  182).— This 
is  a  special  kind  of  enlargement  on  the  roots  of  many 
plants,  caused  by  the  attacks  of  extremely  small  worms, 
called  nematodes.     Cotton  is  attacked,  but  less  severely 
than  are  most  varieties  of  cowpeas.     Among  the  plants 
not  attacked  are  the  grains  and  grasses  and  the  Iron 
variety  of  cowpea.     The  best  way  to  combat  this  disease 
consists  in  starving  the  worms,  by  excluding  from  the  field 
for  two  years  all  plants  on  the  roots  of  which  nematodes 
can  develop,  including  ordinary  varieties  of  cowpeas,  and 


COTTON  DISEASES 


415 


all  other  plants  having  tender  succulent  roots.  Mean- 
time the  land  may  be  cropped  with  any  of  the  grains,  with 
any  of  the  forage  grasses, 
or  with  peanuts,  or  with 
velvet  beans,  or  with 
the  Iron  variety  of  cow- 
peas,  which  are  all 
practically  exempt  from 
attack. 

The  root-knot  en- 
largements may  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the 
beneficial  tubercles  oc- 
curring on  the  roots  of 
cowpeas  and  other  leg- 
umes as  follows:  — 

When  small,  root- 
knot  swellings  are  gen- 
erally longer  than  thick, 
and  the  swelling  is  on 
all  sides  of  the  root ; 
while  tubercles  are  always  formed  on  one  side  of  the  root. 

386.  Boll-rot  or  anthracnose  (Colletotrichum  gossypii).  — 
This  fungus  is  responsible  for  the  greater  part  of  the  rot- 
ting of  the  bolls  of  cotton.  In  its  worst  form,  which  occurs 
during  damp  weather,  small  discolored  depressions  appear 
on  the  bolls ;  these  spots  become  grayish  and  in  time  be- 
come covered  with  pinkish  spores,  which  in  effect  are  the 
seedlike  parts  of  the  fungus  (Fig.  183).  Either  a  single  lock 
or  the  entire  contents  of  the  boll  may  be  rotted.  Or  the 
disease  may  keep  the  boll  from  opening  widely. 


FIG. 


182.  —  ROOT-KNOT    OR    NEMATODE 
INJURIES  ON  COTTON  ROOTS. 


416 


SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 


Dry  weather  checks  the  progress  of  the  disease,  and  it 
may  then  appear  only  as  a  reddening  or  spotting  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  boll  without  serious  damage  to  the  crop. 


FIG.  183. — ANTHRACNOSE  ON  COTTON  BOLLS. 

No  method  of  spraying  for  the  prevention  of  boll-rot 
has  been  devised.  But  since  anthracnose  develops  most 
rapidly  in  the  shade,  preventive  measures  consist  in  (1)  ad- 
mitting the  maximum  amount  of  sunlight  by  widening 


COTTON  DISEASES  417 

the  rows;  (2)  avoiding  the  use  of  nitrogenous  fertilizers, 
which  induce  a  rank  growth  of  the  plant ;  and  (3)  planting 
those  varieties  which  have  not  an  excess  of  foliage,  and 
which  show  partial  resistance  to  this  disease.  Anthracnose 
of  the  bolls  is  most  troublesome  on  rich  land  or  on  that 
which  is  highly  fertilized,  especially  with  nitrogenous  fer- 
tilizer. While  the  worst  injury  is  done  to  the  bolls,  this 
disease  also  attacks  the  young  seedlings,  the  stem  or 
branches  of  the  larger  plants,  and  the  leaves. 

Disinfection  of  the  seed  by  dipping  them  in  a  3  per  cent 
solution  of  formalin  has  been  recommended,  but  not 
generally  practiced.  This  would  have  the  effect  of  destroy- 
ing such  germs  as  might  have  lodged  on  the  outside  of  the 
seed,  and  hence  this  treatment  might  reduce  the  amount 
of  injury.  However,  no  treatment  of  the  seed  can  destroy 
all  of  the  fungus,  since  this  organism  penetrates  the  parts 
inside  the  seed-coat  or  hull.  Apparently  the  use  of  dis- 
eased seed  constitutes  one  of  the  methods  by  which  boll-rot 
is  propagated.  Hence  seed  from  diseased  bolls  and  even 
seed  from  badly  infected  fields  should  be  avoided. 

387.  Cotton-rust  or  black-rust.  —  Cotton-rust  causes  the 
premature  loss  of  the  foliage.  This  reduces  the  weight 
or  prevents  the  maturing  of  late  bolls.  It  is  probably 
the  most  widely  prevalent  destructive  disease  of  cotton. 
The  yield  may  be  reduced  by  a  severe  attack  of  rust  as 
much  as  50  per  cent. 

Several  different  kinds  of  fungi  are  found  in  the  diseased 
foliage,  but  these  are  thought  to  be  unable  to  gain  entrance 
into  the  leaves  until  unfavorable  conditions  of  weather 
or  soil  have  weakened  the  plant.  Cotton-rust  is  usually 
worse  in  hot  weather  following  a  period  of  heavy  rains. 

2E 


418  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

It  is  much  more  prevalent  on  sandy  soils  than  on  clay 
soil,  and  on  poor  than  on  fertile  land.  It  usually  occurs 
in  July,  August,  and  September. 

The  disease  comes  on  with  variable  symptoms.  When 
the  weather  is  dry,  the  leaves  of  the  diseased  plants  usually 
show  at  first  a  mottled  yellowish  color.  After  wet  weather 
there  may  be  no  yellowing  but  a  sudden  blackening, 
dying,  and  falling  of  the  foliage. 

No  remedies  can  be  employed  after  cotton-rust  appears. 
Prevention,  instead  of  cure,  is  needed.  Any  treatment 
of  the  soil  and  any  application  of  fertilizers  that  promote 
a  healthy  but  not  excessive  growth  of  the  cotton  plant 
increase  its  resistance  to  rust. 

On  poor  soils  of  any  kind,  the  addition  of  vegetable 
matter  by  proper  rotation  of  crops  is  the  most  widely 
applicable  means  of  warding  off  rust.  On  very  poor  sandy 
soils  the  application  of  potash  usually  enables  the  plant 
to  resist  the  disease  and  to  retain  the  greater  part  of  its 
foliage  until  the  crop  is  mature.  For  this  purpose  at  least 
80,  and  better  100  pounds  of  kainit  per  acre  is  advisable, 
applied  in  connection  with  the  other  fertilizers  which  may 
be  required  on  that  particular  soil. 

Where  the  unthrifty  condition  of  cotton  plants  is  caused 
by  poor  drainage,  ditching  is  usually  a  means  of  decreasing 
the  amount  of  rust.  .  •;' 

388.  Minor  leaf  diseases.  —  Other  diseases  of  the  leaves, 
which  are  less  destructive  than  cotton-rust,  are  angular 
leaf -spot  (Fig.  184),  which  appears  earlier  than  rust;  leaf 
blight,  in  which  the  diseased  areas  show  as  small  whitish 
spots ;  and  cotton  mildew,  appearing  on  the  under  side  of  the 
leaves.  No  remedies  are  in  use  for  any  of  these  diseases. 


COTTON  DISEASES 


419 


389.    Sore-shin,    or   damping   off    (Rhizoctonia) .  —  The 
fungus  causing  this  disease  penetrates  the  stems  of  the 


FIG.  184.  —  DISEASED  LEAVES,  BOLL,  AND  STEMS  OF  COTTON  PLANT. 

Showing  several  forms  of  bacterial  blight,  known  on  the  leaves  as  angu- 
lar leaf-spot ;  on  the  stems  as  black  arm  ;  and  on  the  bolls  as  bacterial 
boll-rot. 

very  young  cotton  plants  just  below  the  surface  of  the  soil. 
Some  of  the  diseased  plants  die,  while  others  recover. 
It  is  worse  in  wet  weather.  Any  method  of  hastening  the 
drying  of  the  surface  soil  is  believed  to  be  helpful.  This 
may  sometimes  be  done  by  passing  a  weeder  or  harrow 
across  the  rows  after  the  ground  has  dried  sufficiently  to 
permit  this.  The  use  of  lime  has  been  recommended  as 
helpful  in  combating  a  similar  disease  on  certain  other 
crops,  but  its  effects  on  cotton  have  not  been  investigated. 


420  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

The  object  of  any  laboratory  work  in  connection  with  this 
chapter  should  be  to  become  acquainted  with  the  appearance 
in  the  field  of  cotton  plants  attacked  by  any  of  these  diseases 
that  may  be  prevalent  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  school  or  near 
the  students'  homes. 

LlTEBATUBE 

STEVENS.     Diseases  of  Plants.     Bailey's  Cyclo.  Agr.,  Vol.  I,  pp. 

450-453. 
ATKINSON,  C.  F.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui. 

No.  33,  pp.  279-316. 
OETON,  W.  A.    U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Div.  Veg.  Phys.  and  Path.,  and 

Farmer's  Bui.  No.  302. 


FIG.  185. — A  FIELD  OF  HEMP. 


421 


CHAPTER   XXV 


HEMP  —  CANNABIS  SATIVA 

HEMP  is  a  member  of  the  mulberry  family  (Moracece). 
It  is  useful  for  the  fiber,  of  which  burlap  bags  and  twine 
are  made.  The  plant  grows  to  a  height  of  about  ten  feet 

(Fig.  185).  It  is  annual, 
making  its  growth  during 
the  warmest  months. 

An  interesting  fact  about 
hemp  is  that  there  are  male 
and  female  plants.  The 
male  plants  bear  in  clusters 
the  flowers  containing  the 
stamens  or  pollen-bearing 
parts.  On  the  other  or 
female  plants  are  borne  the 
pistils  or  seed-producing 
parts.  The  male  plants  are 
preferred  for  cultivation. 

Each  leaf  of  hemp  con- 
sists of  five  to  seven  leaflets, 
joined  together  only  at  the  point  where  the  leaf  stem 
ends  (Fig.  186). 

The  most  important  hemp-producing  district  in  the 
United  States  is  the  Blue-grass  region  of  Kentucky. 

422 


FIG.  186.  —  LEAF  AND  FLOWERS  OP 
HEMP. 

a  and  c,  pistillate  or  female  flow- 
ers ;  6,  staminate  or  male  flowers. 


HEMP  423 

390.  Soils  for  hemp.  —  Hemp  is  at  its  best  on  a  rich, 
moist,  limestone  soil.     But  it  also  thrives  on  other  than 
lime  soils  if  they  are  moist,  but  well  drained. 

391.  Cultural    methods.  —  The    land    is    plowed    flush 
or    broadcast    and    thoroughly   harrowed.     The    seed    is 
sown  through  a  grain  drill  run  in  two  directions.     This 
insures  a  more  even  stand  and  a  more  uniform  germina- 
tion and  early  growth,  both  of  which  are  desirable  in  order 
to  secure  plants  of  the  desired  diameter,  preferably  half 
an  inch.     The  quantity  of  seed  required  per  acre  is  one 
bushel.     The  date  of  planting  in  Kentucky  is  late  in  April. 
No  cultivation  is  given  after  sowing  the  seed.     Seed  orig- 
inally from  China  is  preferred,  though  in  its  first  year  in 
the  United  States  it  is  believed  to  yield  less  hemp  than 
during  each  of  the  next  few  years.     The  small  area  in 
Kentucky  devoted  to  hemp  grown  for  seed  is  planted  in 
checks,  with  hills  about  seven  feet  apart  each  way,  and 
with  four  plants  in  each  hill. 

The  Kentucky  Experiment  Station  found  that  the  use 
of  160  pounds  per  acre  of  nitrate  of  soda  and  an  equal 
amount  of  muriate  of  potash  profitably  increased  the  yield 
of  fiber. 

392.  Harvesting   and   preparing   hemp   for   market.  — 
Early  in  the  fall  hemp  is  cut,  most  of  it  by  hand,  but  part 
also  by  special  machinery.     The  stalks  are  spread  evenly 
on  the  ground  for  about  a  week.     Then  they  are  raked 
together,  tied  into  bundles,  and  shocked  (Fig.  187).     The 
Kentucky  Experiment  Station  found  it  profitable  to  stack 
the  hemp,  though  keeping  the  hemp  in  shock  saves  expense. 

Late  in  November  or  early  in  December  hemp  is  retted. 
This  consists  in  exposing  it  to  cold  and  rain  for  about  two 


424 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CEOPS 


months,  spread  out  on  the  ground  for  the  purpose  of  favor- 
ing the  separation  of  the  fiber  from  the  adhering  materials. 


FIG.  187.  —  SHOCKING  HEMP. 

When  exposure  to  alternate  freezing  and  thawing  has  ef- 
fected its  end,  the  hemp  is  again  shocked. 

The  fiber  is  separated  on  the  farm  chiefly  by  the  old 
device,  called  the  hand-brake.  In  some  regions  this  work 
is  performed  by  machinery. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

In  regions  where  hemp  is  not  grown,  it  is  scarcely  profitable 
to  spend  a  laboratory  period  on  dried  specimens  and  on  the  litera- 
ture of  this  crop.  Instead,  this  laboratory  period  may  well  be 
devoted  to  some  review  or  additional  exercise  relative  to  the 
principal  crop  of  the  region  where  the  school  is  located. 

LITERATURE 

BOYCE.     Hemp.     New  York,  1900. 
DEWEY,  L.  H.     The  Fiber  Industries  in  the  United  States.     U.  S. 

Dept.  Agr.  Yearbook,  1901,  pp.  541-544. 
HARPER,  J.  N.     Hemp.     Bailey's  Cyclo.  Agr.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  377- 

380. 

HUNT,  T.  F.    The  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America,  pp.  394- 
397.    New  York,  1907. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
SWEET-POTATO  —  IPOMCEA  BATATAS 

INTRODUCTORY 

THE  sweet-potato  belongs  to  the  morning-glory  family 
(Convolvulacece),  which  also  includes  a  number  of  common 
weeds  and  cultivated  flowers.  This  plant  has  long  been 
cultivated  in  the  tropical  and  semitropical  regions  of 
both  the  eastern  and  the  western  hemispheres.  Its  origin 
is  somewhat  doubtful,  but  most  authorities  regard  it  as  a 
native  of  America. 

393.  Distribution  and  climate.  —  The  sweet-potato  is 
widely  grown  throughout  the  warmer  regions  of  America 
and  Asia,  as  well  as  to  a  smaller  extent  in  other  countries. 
This  plant  requires  a  warm  climate.  Its  culture  on  a 
large  scale  is  confined  in  the  United  States  to  the  region 
lying  south  of  the  line  drawn  through  central  New  Jersey 
to  the  southern  part  of  Kansas.  North  of  this  line  it  is 
sometimes  grown,  but  only  on  a  small  scale  as  a  garden 
vegetable  and  without  the  best  results  in  either  quality 
or  quantity.  A  number  of  the  cotton-growing  states 
each  produces  more  than  four  million  bushels  annually. 

The  sweet-potato  grows  chiefly  during  the  hottest  part 
of  the  year.  In  contrast  with  the  Irish  potato,  it  may 
be  called  strictly  a  summer  crop,  a  difference  that  has  an 
important  bearing  on  the  character  of  fertilizers  needed 
for  these  two  crops. 

425 


426 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


In  the  cotton-growing  states  the  sweet-potato  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  field  crop,  while  north  of  this  region  it  is  treated  as 
a 'garden  crop.  Conversely,  the  Irish  potato  is  a  field  crop  in 
the  North  and  a  garden  crop  in  the  South. 

There  is  corresponding  confusion  in  the  use  of  the  word 
"  potato."  This  term,  when  used  without  modifiers,  usually 


FIG.  188. — A  FIELD  OF  SWEET-POTATOES  IN  ALABAMA. 

means,  in  the  Southern  States,  sweet-potatoes ;   while  elsewhere 
it  signifies  the  Irish,  round,  or  white  potato. 

The  season  that  makes  the  maximum  yield  and  best  quality 
of  sweet-potatoes  is  one  in  which  frequent  rains  occur  during 
the  late  spring  and  the  greater  part  of  the  summer,  but  in  which 
there  is  comparatively  dry  weather  in  September  and  October. 
Heavy  rains  near  the  time  of  harvest,  especially  if  they  follow 
a  long  period  of  drought,  are  apt  to  induce  a  new  growth,  which 
results  in  harm  to  the  quality  and  keeping  properties  of  the  crop. 


SWEET-POTATO  427 

394.  Description.  —  The  sweet-potato  is  perennial,  but 
in  cultivation  it  is  treated  as  annual;   that  is,  new  propa- 
gating material  is  placed  in  the  soil  each  year. 

The  plant  has  prostrate  stems  (Fig.  188),  many  of  which, 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  season,  take  root  at  the  nodes. 
The  leaves  are  extremely  variable  in  shape,  and  these 
differences  constitute  one  means  of  classifying  varieties. 

The  valuable  product  is  botanically  an  enlarged  root. 
This  is  an  organ  for  the  storage  of  food,  serving  to  hasten 
the  growth  of  the  young  shoots,  from  which  the  plant  is 
ordinarily  propagated.  Man  converts  this  stored  material 
to  his  own  use. 

Some  confusion  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  same  word 
"  root/'  when  applied  to  the  sweet-potato,  may  denote 
three  parts:  (1)  the  enlarged  or  edible  root;  (2)  the  slen- 
der, fibrous  roots  which  absorb  the  plant-food  and  mois- 
ture from  the  soil,  and  (3)  the  potatoes  that  are  too  small 
for  market,  but  which  are  used  for  planting.  Therefore, 
in  this  chapter,  the  word  " potatoes"  will  be  used  to 
designate  the  large  roots,  as  well  as  to  include  the  whole 
plant. 

395.  Flowers   and   seeds.  —  The   sweet-potato   seldom 
produces  flowers  in  the  American  cotton-belt,  and   still 
more  rarely,  if  ever,  are  perfect  seed  matured  in  this  region. 
However,  seeds  are  sometimes  matured  when  the  season 
of  growth  is  prolonged  by  keeping  the  plants  in  a  green- 
house.    When  sweet-potato  seeds  are  planted,  they  give 
rise  to  young  plants  differing  greatly  among  themselves 
and  most  of  them  unlike  their  parents.     The  best  of  these 
'seedlings  may  be  propagated  in  the  usual  way,  and  thus 
give  rise  to  new  varieties. 


428 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


The  blooms  of  the  sweet-potato  are  purplish,  and  in 
shape  and  size  resemble  those  of  the  larger  wild  morning- 
glories. 

COMPOSITION  AND  USES 

396.  Uses.  —  The  principal  present  use  of  the  sweet- 
potato  is  as  a  vegetable  for  human  use.  It  is  shipped  to 
the  Northern  markets  in  enormous  quantities.  On  farms 
it  is  also  used  as  food  for  live-stock,  especially  for  hogs. 

Analyses  of  sweet-potato  roots,  vines,  and  dried  or  desiccated 
sweet-potatoes 


DRY 
MATTER 

ASH 

PRO- 
TEIN 

FIBER 

NITRO- 
GEN- 
FREE 
EXTRACT 

FAT, 

ETC. 

Sweet-potatoes,  edible 
roots  l  .     .     .     .     . 

% 

31.9 

% 

1.0 

% 

1.6 

% 

0.9 

% 

27.9 

% 

0.5 

Irish  potatoes    .     .     . 
Dried  sweet-potatoes  2 
Sweet-potato      vines, 
fresh  3 

21.1 

89.5 

170 

1.0 
3.0 

1  5 

2.1 
4.5 

2  1 

0.6 
1.9 

3  1 

17.3 
75.7 

95 

0.1 

1.8 

08 

397.  Value  as  food.  —  From  the  above  table,  it  may 
be  noted  that  the  sweet-potato  root  is  specially  rich  in 
nitrogen-free  extract,  which  consists  chiefly  of  starch  and 
sugar.  Therefore,  in  any  diet  for  man  or  animal,  sweet- 
potatoes  should  be  supplemented  by  foods  rich  in  protein. 

1  Average  of   14  varieties  grown  at  S.  C.  Expr.  Sta.  in  1908 
(Bui.  146). 

2  Farmer's  Bui.  No.  129,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr. 

8  Calculated  from  average  composition  of  dry  matter  found  in 
four  varieties ;  S.  C.  Expr.  Sta.,  No.  146. 


SWEET-POTATO  429 

On  the  table,  among  the  dishes  rich  in  protein  are  peas, 
beans,  milk,  eggs,  and  lean  meat.  In  the  diet  of  animals, 
suitable  foods  for  supplementing  sweet-potatoes  are  pea- 
nuts, the  seeds  of  cowpeas,  soy  beans,  the  hay  of  any  of  the 
legumes,  and  cotton-seed  meal.  The  figures  show  that 
the  sweet-potato  root  contains  about  one  and  one  half 
times  as  much  nutritive  matter  as  an  equal  weight  of  Irish 
potatoes. 

Moreover,  the  protein,  or  nitrogenous  portion  in  Irish  pota- 
toes, is  chiefly  in  the  less  valuable  form,  amides ;  while  it  has 
been  found  that  amides  are  not  present  in  the  mature  sweet- 
potato,  all  the  protein  here  being  in  a  more  valuable  form. 

Compared  with  shelled  corn,  300  pounds  of  sweet-potato 
roots  afford  slightly  more  total  dry  matter  and  carbonaceous 
material  (as  starch  and  sugar)  and  a  littie  less  protein;  the 
theoretical  nutritive  value  of  sweet-potatoes  is  approximately 
one  third  that  of  an  equal  weight  of  shelled  corn. 

In  order  to  make  advantageous  use  of  the  sweet-potato  as  a 
hog  food,  it  is  necessary  to  use  only  the  unmarketable  roots ; 
or  else  to  require  the  hogs  to  harvest  the  crop,  thus  avoiding  the 
principal  item  of  expense  for  labor. 

398.  Starch  and  alcohol.  —  It  seems  probable  that  the 
sweet-potato  will  become  an  important  crop  for  the  manu- 
facture of  starch,  an  excellent  quality  of  which  has  been 
made  from  this  crop.  Sweet-potatoes  usually  contain 
15  to  20  per  cent  of  starch.  This  is  a  higher  percentage 
than  in  the  Irish  potato,  which  is  now  a  standard  source 
of  starch. 

Recent  laws  permitting,  under  certain  restrictions,  the 
manufacture  of  denatured  alcohol  for  use  as  fuel  and  in  the 
arts,  make  it  probable  that  the  sweet-potato  will  be  ad- 
vantageously manufactured  into  this  product.  A  bushel 


430 


SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 


of  sweet-potatoes  is  expected  to  make  nearly  one  gallon 
of  industrial  alcohol.  Moreover,  in  the  manufacture  of 
starch,  after  this  substance  is  removed,  alcohol  could  be 
made  as  a  by-product  from  some  of  the  waste  material. 

399.  Draft  on  soil  fertility.  —  The  sweet-potato  removes 
much  potash  and  also  rather  large  amounts  of  other  plant 
food,  as  shown  by  analyses  :  — 


NITROGEN 
PERCENT 

PHOSPHORIC 
ACID 
PER  CENT 

POTASH 
PER  CENT 

Sweet-potatoes,  edible  roots  (N.  J.) 
Sweet-potatoes,  edible  roots  (S.  C.) 
Sweet-potatoes,  edible  roots  (Cal.) 
Sweet-potatoes,  edible  roots,  aver- 
age of  above  

0.23 
.25 
.30 

.26 

0.10 
.07 
.17 

.11 

0.50 
.45 
.63 

.53 

Sweet-potato,    fresh  vines    (Md., 
water  83  %)x  

0.42 

0.07 

0.73 

Sweet-potato,  fresh  vines  (S.  C., 

83  %  water)2 

034 

005 

0.48 

Fresh  vines,  average  of  above   .     . 

.38 

.06 

.60 

1  Farmer's  Bui.  No.  26,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

2  S.  C.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  146,  p.  18. 

The  roots  of  sweet-potatoes  remove  about  twice  as  much 
potash  as  nitrogen  and  about  five  times  as  much  potash  as  phos- 
phoric acid.  The  fresh  vines  have  been  found  to  weigh  consid- 
erably more  than  half  of  the  weight  of  the  edible  roots  and  to  be 
richer  in  nitrogen. 

According  to  the  average  figures  in  the  above  table  a  crop  of 
200  bushels  would  remove  in  the  edible  roots  alone 

31  pounds  of  nitrogen, 

13  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid, 

64  pounds  of  potash. 


8  WEET-POTA  TO  431 

t 

VARIETIES 

400.  Terms  used.  —  Great  confusion  exists  in  the  names 
and  qualities  of  varieties  of  sweet-potatoes.     This  is  partly 
due  to  the  fact  that  many  different  names  are  locally  ap- 
plied to  the  same  variety;  partly  to  the  ease  with  which  the 
tubers  of  different  varieties  become  mechanically  mixed; 
and  partly,  perhaps,  to  natural  variations  occurring  in  the 
same  variety  under  different  conditions  of  climate  and 
cultivation. 

The  word  "  yam  "  is  used  as  a  part  of  a  name  of  some  vari- 
eties. Often  it  is  applied  to  those  varieties  having  a  soft,  sirupy 
texture  and  flavor ;  it  is  also  frequently  used  for  varieties-  having 
deeply  cut  leaves ;  and  it  has  even  been  applied  to  those  potatoes 
which  have  prominent  veins  on  the  roots.  Its  meaning  is  so 
indefinite  and  variable  that  the  term  might  better  be  dropped, 
especially  since  the  word  "  yam  "  is  properly  applied  to  an  en- 
tirely different  genus  of  plants,  Dioscorea,  of  the  yam  family, 
largely  grown  in  the  West  Indies  and  elsewhere  as  food  for  the 
natives. 

401.  Market  demands.  —  As  a  rule  the  Southern  con- 
sumer, whether  on  the  farm  or  in  a  city,  prefers  a  soft, 
sirupy  potato,  which  qualities  are  still  further  developed 
by  baking,  the  common  Southern  method  of  cooking  this 
vegetable.     On  the   other   hand,  the   Northern  markets 
demand  a  dry,  mealy,  or  starchy  potato,  probably  partly 
because  the  more  common  method  of  cooking  consists  in 
boiling.     It  is  stated  that  in  the  latter  part  of  winter  there 
is  more  demand  than  earlier  in  Northern  markets  for  the 
sirupy  type  of  potato. 

Among  varieties  popular  in  the  Northern  markets  are 
Nansemond  and  Big  Stem  Jersey.  Probably  the  most 


432  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

popular  variety  among  the  Southern  consumers,  when 
obtainable,  is  the  Yellow  Yam,  also  called  Georgia  Yam 
and  Sugar  Yam.  Since  this  variety  is  so  much  less  pro- 
ductive than  others,  it  is  seldom  obtainable,  and  its  place 
among  Southern  consumers  is  taken  by  the  Dooley,  which 
seems  to  be  a  synonym  of  the  Pumpkin  Yam. 

402.  Desirable   qualities.  —  The  qualities   most  desir- 
able in  a  variety  of  potatoes  are  (1)  texture  and  flavor 
of  the  kind  demanded  by  the  market  for  which  the  crop 
is  grown ;    (2)  productiveness,  and  (3)  keeping  qualities. 

To  supply  the  market  for  a  few  weeks  in  the  latter  part 
of  summer,  there  is  also  need  for  early  varieties,  which, 
however,  are  usually  inferior  in  quality  to  the  standard 
kinds.  Examples  of  early  varieties  are  Nancy  Hall  and 
Strasburg. 

When  potatoes  are  grown  chiefly  as  a  stock  food,  yield 
is  the  main  consideration.  As  a  rule,  the  most  productive 
varieties  have  a  hard  texture  and  high  percentage  of  dry 
matter,  and  are  not  favorites  for  the  table.  Among  the 
most  productive  kinds  are  Southern  Queen,  Hayman, 
Providence,  and  Shanghai.  This  class  of  varieties  is  also 
the  type  best  suited  to  the  manufacture  of  starch  and 
industrial  alcohol. 

403.  Classification  of  varieties.  —  No  system  of  classi- 
fication is  thoroughly  satisfactory.     For  the  sake  of  con- 
venience, varieties  may  be  divided  into  four  groups  as 
follows :  — 

Group  I.  Bunch,  or  vineless  varieties,  having  short 
vines,  with  leaf-stems  closely  crowded  to- 
gether (Fig.  189) ;  leaves  usually  deeply 
cut  (Fig.  190). 


SWEET-POTATO 


433 


Group   II.     Leaves  deeply  cut ;  vines  long. 

Group  III.  Leaves  shouldered,  or  very  slightly  lobed 
(Fig.  190) ;  vines  long. 

Group  IV.  Leaves  with  margins  entire  or  nearly  un- 
broken by  lobes  or  shoulders  (Fig.  190) ; 
vines  long. 

Each  of  these  groups,  except  possibly  the  vineless  varieties, 
may  be  subdivided  into  three .  classes,  according  to   the  texture 


FIG.  189.  —  A  BRANCH  OF  A  VINELESS  SWEET-POTATO  PLANT. 
Showing  crowded  position  of  leaf-stems.     (After  Price.) 

and  flavor,  which  may  be  either  sirupy,  mealy,  or  intermediate. 
Each  of  these  subdivisions  may  be  further  subdivided  into  three 
groups,  according  to  whether  the  uncooked  flesh  is  yellow,  white 


FIG.  190. — THREE  SHAPES  OF  SWEET-POTATO  LEAVES. 
On  left,   cut-leaf  type  ;  in  center,  shouldered  leaf  ;  and  on  right,  entire 
or  "  round"  leaf. 
2F 


434  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 

or  mottled  white  and  yellow.  Each  of  these  last  subdivisions 
can  be  still  further  separated  into  four  divisions,  according  as  the 
skin  of  the  potato  is  white,  yellowish,  light  red,  or  purple  (dark 
reddish).  If  all  of  these  classes  should  have  representatives, 
there  would  be  144  different  classes.  However,  the  vineless 
has  only  a  few  subdivisions  at  the  time  when  this  is  written. 

Examples  of  the  bunch  varieties  are  found  in  the  several 
strains  of  vineless,  which  appear  to  differ  somewhat  in  quality 
and  yield. 

Among  the  varieties  of  the  cut-leaf  type,  with  long  vines, 
are  the  following.  Sugar,  or  Yellow  Yam,  and  its  synonyms, 
all  of  which  have  a  sirupy  quality,  but  are  relatively  unproduc- 
tive ;  the  Spanish  has  cut  leaves  and  a  mealy  texture. 

Among  varieties  having  shouldered  leaves  is  the  Yellow  Nan- 
semond  which  has  a  mealy  texture. 

Among  the  varieties  with  leaves  almost  entire  are  Pumpkin 
Yam,  or  Dooley,  which  has  a  sirupy  flavor ;  and  among  those 
with  a  starchy  texture  are  Southern  Queen  and  Hayman. 


SOILS,  FERTILIZERS,  AND  ROTATION 

404.  Soils.  —  For  the  best  results  in  quantity  and 
quality,  the  soil  for  sweet-potatoes  should  have  the  fol- 
lowing properties :  (1)  It  should  be  mellow,  so  as  not 
to  bake,  and  so  that  the  roots  may  easily  penetrate  it, 
and  fully  develop  without  undue  pressure;  (2)  it  should 
be  warm,  so  as  to  promote  a  long  period  of  active  growth ; 
and  (3)  it  should  be  well  drained,  so  that  growth  may  be 
vigorous  and  the  quality  of  the  crop  good.  These  con- 
ditions are  best  filled  by  a  sandy  loam  or  sandy  soil.  On 
a  given  farm,  the  soil  which  contains  the  largest  proportion 
of  sand  is  usually  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  sweet-i 
potatoes. 

However,  this  crop  is  not  confined  to  sandy  land.     On 


SWEET-POTATO  435 

some  clay  soils,  especially  if  rich  in  lime,  large  yields  are 
made;  but  here  the  crop  is  later,  of  somewhat  poorer 
quality,  and  liable  to  be  of  inferior  appearance  by  reason 
of  adhering  particles  of  soil.  Moreover,  harvesting  is 
more  laborious  in  clay  than  in  sandy  soils. 

405.  Humus.  —  If  sweet-potatoes  must  be  grown  where 
there  is  much  clay,  there  should  be  also  an  abundant  supply 
of  humus,  so  as  to  make  the  soil  mellow  and  free  from  a 
tendency  to  bake.     In  fact,  whatever  may  be  the  nature 
of  the  soil,  humus  is  an  important  constituent  for  the  best 
results  with  sweet-potatoes.     A  favorite  method  of  apply- 
ing it,  especially  in  regions  where  sweet-potatoes  are  grown 
for  market,  consists  in  using  pine  or  other  leaves  from  the 
woods,  which  are  first  employed  for  a  number  of  months 
as  bedding  in  the  stables  or  barn  lots. 

A  still  more  economical  method  of  supplying  humus, 
and  with  it  nitrogen,  consists  in  plowing  under  a  growth 
of  crimson  clover  a  few  weeks  before  setting  sweet-potato 
slips. 

406.  Fertilizers.  —  As  shown  in  a  previous  paragraph, 
both  the  roots  and  the  vines  of  sweet-potatoes  contain 
much  more  potash  than  either  nitrogen  or  phosphoric 
acid.     Therefore,  the  fertilizer  should  be  rich  in  potash. 
Moreover,  sandy  soil,  the  type  usually  selected  for  sweet- 
potatoes,  is  generally  more  deficient  in  potash  than  is 
stiffer  land. 

This  crop  makes  heavy  demands  for  nitrogen  also.  The 
cheapest  means  of  supplying  it  consist  in  growing  a  pre- 
ceding crop  of  crimson  clover,  cowpeas,  or  other  legumes. 

Acid  phosphate  has  also  been  found  by  experience  to 
be  needed  in  fertilizer  formulas  for  sweet-potatoes. 


436  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 

No  one  formula  is  best  for  all  soils.  The  following  is  only 
suggestive  for  soils  needing  a  complete  fertilizer  under  conditions 
where  moderate  fertilization  is  desired :  — 

150  pounds  per  acre  of  high  grade  sulfate  or  of  muriate  of 
;        potash, 

250  pounds  acid  phosphate, 

150  pounds  nitrate  of  soda  (or  320  pounds  of  cotton-seed  meal 
or  tankage). 

Potash  salts,  acid  phosphate,  and  cotton-seed  meal  or  tankage 
are  applied  before  bedding  the  land,  while  nitrate  of  soda  is 
drilled  alongside  of  each  row  soon  after  the  slips  have  rooted  and 
begun  to  grow. 

Farmers  in  the  cotton  states  are  sometimes  afraid  to  use 
stable  manure  or  other  nitrogenous  fertilizers,  lest  the  crop  "  run 
chiefly  to  vines. ' '  When  the  fertilizer  is  properly  balanced,  —  that 
is,  made  up  of  the  proper  proportion  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid, 
and  potash,  —  there  is  little,  if  any,  danger  that  the  growth  of  vines 
will  be  excessive.  Only  by  the  development  of  a  large  growth  of 
vines  can  a  maximum  crop  of  roots  be  secured ;  for  the  starch 
and  other  valuable  material,  of  which  the  roots  largely  consist, 
can  be  manufactured  only  by  an  abundance  of  leaves  and  other 
green  portions  of  the  plant. 

In  the  parts  of  New  Jersey  where  this  crop  is  extensively 
grown  for  market  and  large  yields  are  secured,  it  is  not  unusual 
for  a  farmer  to  apply  10  tons  of  manure  per  acre  for  sweet-pota- 
toes, in  addition  to  500  to  1000  pounds  of  commercial  fertilizer. 

407.  Place  in  the  rotation.  —  Since  a  field  of  sweet- 
potatoes  needs  to  be  kept  free  from  grass  and  weeds  at 
the  least  expense,  it  is  generally  advisable  for  this  crop 
to  follow  one  which  leaves  the  land  clean ;  that  is,  relatively 
free  from  seeds  of  weeds  and  grass.  One  of  the  best  of 
such  crops  to  precede  sweetrpotatoes  is  cotton. 

It  is  also  advantageous  that  the  preceding  crop  supply 
a  large  amount  of  humus.  Cowpeas  or  velvet  beans 


SWEET-POTATO  437 

answer  this  purpose  well,  if  so  grown  as  to  keep  down  the 
growth  of  weeds.  One  of  the  best  means  of  supply- 
ing both  humus  and  nitrogen  consists  in  growing  a  pre- 
ceding catch-crop  of  crimson  clover,  to  be  plowed  under 
in  April  as  a  preparation  for  sweet-potatoes.  The  clover 
seed  can  be  sown  among  the  bearing  cotton  plants  in  Sep- 
tember, taking  care  to  inoculate  the  soil,  which  is  usually 
done  by  sowing  with  the  seed  some  soil  from  a  spot  where 
any  true  clover,  —  such  as  crimson,  red,  or  white  clover,  — 
has  recently  grown  and  developed  tubercles  on  the  roots. 

408.  Effect  on  land.  —  The  large  quantities  of  manures 
and  fertilizers  sometimes  employed  for  sweet-potatoes 
tend  to  make  this  field  produce  good  crops  the  next  year, 
provided  the  vines  be  left  on  the  land  and  somewhat  evenly 
distributed.  However,  the  sweet-potato  in  itself  is  an 
exhaustive  crop  on  account  (1)  of  the  large  amounts  of 
potash  and  nitrogen  removed  and  (2)  of  the  leaching  of 
the  soil  by  winter  rain,  which  is  apt  to  be  especially  great 
on  a  field  plowed  in  the  fall  and  left  bare  of  vegetation 
during  winter.  To  prevent  this  leaching,  it  is  advisable, 
where  practicable,  to  sow  small  grain  or  some  winter 
cover-crop  after  harvesting  sweet-potatoes. 

However,  unless  the  field  is  securely  fenced,  stray  hogs, 
rooting  for  the  small  potatoes,  will  often  destroy  the  stand 
of  any  winter-growing  plant.  An  additional  reason  for 
selecting  a  fenced  field  for  sweet-potatoes  is  in  order  that 
the  small,  injured  roots  may  be  utilized  by  the  landowner's 
hogs,  without  the  expense  of  handling  this  unsalable  part 
of  the  crop. 

It  is  generally  advisable  not  to  grow  sweet-potatoes  for 
two  years  in  succession  on  the  same  land.  This  is  partly 


438  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

because  of  the  removal  of  large  amounts  of  fertilizing  con- 
stituents, but  chiefly  because  the  crop  is  subject  to  several 
very  destructive  diseases,  which,  after  being  once  intro- 
duced into  the  soil,  increase  in  injury  to  each  successive 
crop. 

CULTURAL  METHODS 

409.  How  propagated.  —  The   sweet-potato  is    propa- 
gated   without    the  use    of    seed.     The    most    common 
method  consists  in  placing  the  roots  in  beds,  where,  under 
the  influence  of  proper  amounts  of  heat  and  moisture, 
the   buds   or   eyes   develop   into   shoots.     These   shoots, 
variously  called   "slips,"    "  draws,"   or   "sets,"   are -the 
means  by  which  the  greater  part  of  the  acreage  is  grown. 
A  second  method  consists  in  cutting  sections  of  vines  from 
plants  produced  by  slips  and  in  setting  these  vines  in  the 
field  rather  late  in  the  season.     A  third  method,  seldom 
employed,  consists  in  cutting  the  potato  into  small  pieces 
and  planting  these  sections  just  as  one  would  plant  Irish 
potatoes. 

410.  Bedding  sweet-potatoes.  —  About  six  weeks  before 
setting  the  slips  in  the  field,  the  enlarged  roots  are  placed 
in  specially  constructed  beds,  for  the  purpose  of  stimulating, 
by  means  of  heat  and  moisture,  the  development  of  buds 
and  shoots. 

The  source  of  heat  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the 
United  States  is  fermenting  stable  manure.  However, 
flue  heat  is  employed  in  the  trucking  region  of  New  Jersey, 
Maryland,  Delaware,  and  Virginia,  and  occasionally  else- 
where. 

411.  Manure  bed.  —  A  bed  to  be  heated  by  manure 
is  usually  made  as  follows :   In  a  well-drained,  sheltered 


SWEET-POTATO  439 

spot,  the  soil  is  excavated  to  a  depth  of  six  or  more  inches, 
and  a  simple  frame  made  with  side  and  end  boards;  a 
layer  of  moist  stable  manure,  with  a  depth  of  four  to  eight 
inches,  is  packed  in;  and  over  this  is  placed  a  layer  of 
about  four  inches  of  fine,  loamy  soil  to  keep  the  potatoes 
from  coming  in  immediate  contact  with  the  manure,  which 
would  rot  or  dry  them.  It  is  best  to  let  the  excess  of  heat 
pass  off,  by  waiting  a  few  days  before  placing  the  potatoes 
in  the  bed.  Then,  or  as  soon  as  the  bed  is  ready,  they 
are  pressed  into  the  soft  layer  of  earth,  being  placed  as 
near  together  as  possible  without  touching.  They  are 
then  covered  with  a  layer  of  loamy  soil,  which  should 
cover  the  most  exposed  roots  to  a  depth  of  at  least  two 
inches.  For  an  early  crop  a  movable  covering  of  pine 
leaves,  or  of  cloth,  or  even  a  glass  sash  is  sometimes  em- 
ployed. If  leaves  are  used,  they  must  be  removed  as  soon 
as  sprouts  appear,  to  avoid  long,  tender  slips.  If  glass  is 
used,  care  must  be  given  to  ventilation.  A  trench  around 
the  outside  provides  for  drainage. 

When  necessary,  this  bed  is  watered.  Excess  of  water 
should  be  avoided,  especially  before  the  sprouts  appear 
above  the  surface,  for  watering  is  usually  a  cooling  process, 
and  it  may  be  a  means  of  baking  the  surface  soil.  Keep 
the  surface  layer  pulverized,  so  as  to  decrease  evaporation 
and  permit  the  easy  emergence  of  the  young  shoots.  Of 
course  all  grass  and  weeds  must  be  destroyed  while  young. 

412.  Fire  hot-beds.  —  These  consist  of  a  board  floor 
with  an  inclosed  air  space  about  two  feet  in  depth  under 
the  entire  area  of  the  floor.  The  sides  of  this  space  are 
tightly  closed  by  planks  and  by  earth  heaped  against 
them ;  or  by  the  earth  walls  left  in  excavating  for  the  bed. 


440  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 

The  floor  is  covered  with  about  five  inches  of  soil,  in  which 
the  potatoes  are  bedded  and  covered  with  additional  soil, 
just  as  in  the  common  type  of  bed.  Fire-heated  flues  are 
provided  underneath  the  floor. 

The  slope  of  the  floor  should  be  about  1  foot  in  20.  The  fur- 
nace, which  is  usually  6  feet  long  by  about  2  feet  6  inches  in  the 
other  dimensions,  is  made  of  brick  and  sunk  to  such  a  depth 
in  the  ground  at  the  lower  end  of  the  bed  as  to  give  the  necessary 
slope  to  the  flues.  The  flues  for  a  bed  12  feet  wide  usually  con- 
sist of  three  lines  of  six-inch  tiles  and  should  extend  about  30 
feet  from  the  furnace,  at  which  point  they  empty  their  heat  and 
smoke  into  the  large  air  space  under  the  floor.  Over  the  furnace 
is  a  layer  of  soil  about  1  foot  deep ;  over  the  flue  the  depth 
of  this  layer  gradually  decreases.  At  the  end  of  the  hot-bed 
farthest  from  the  furnace  is  a  wooden  flue  about  10  feet  long 
to  create  a  draught  and  to  carry  off  the  smoke ;  this  flue  should 
be  provided  with  a  damper  to  regulate  the  draft.  The  effort  is 
to  keep  the  temperature  of  the  soil  in  which  the  potatoes  are 
bedded  at  about  80°  to  85°  F. 

413.  Kind  and  quantity  of  potatoes  to  bed.  —  A  bushel 
of  small  potatoes  affords  a  larger  number  of  slips  than 
does  a  bushel  of  roots  of  larger  size.  This  is  because  the 
greater  number  of  small  potatoes  possesses  a  greater  total 
surface  area  from  which  buds  grow  out.  Farmers  give 
preference  for  bedding  to  roots  of  small  to  medium  size. 
It  has  not  been  proved  that  small  but  well-shaped  potatoes 
cause  any  decrease  in  the  size  of  the  roots  of  the  next  crop. 
However,  in  the  case  of  a  mechanical  mixture  of  several 
varieties  or  strains,  the  exclusive  use,  year  after  year,  of 
the  ill-shaped,  stringy  roots  would  result  in  time  in  a  crop 
consisting  chiefly  of  the  inferior  strain  or  variety,  having 
the  greatest  proportion  of  undesirable  potatoes.  So  far 


SWEET-POTATO 


441 


as  present  information  goes,  the  small  potatoes  make  just 
as  good  "  seed  stock  "  as  large  roots  from  the  same  hill. 

A  bushel  of  medium-sized  potatoes  covers  about  15  to  20 
square  feet  of  surface  when  bedded ;  a  bushel  of  small  roots  re- 
quires 25  square  feet  or  more  of  bed.  At  the  first  drawing,  a 


FIG.  191.  —  SWEET-POTATO  SLIPS  READY  TO  BE  SET  IN  THE  FIELD. 

bushel  of  bedded  potatoes  may  be  expected  to  afford  800  to  1500 
slips,  besides  which  it  usually  affords  a  smaller  number  at  the 
second,  and  again  at  the  third  drawing.  For  each  acre  to  be  set 
out  with  the  slips  from  three  drawings,  it  is  well  to  allow  at  least 
2  bushels  of  very  small  potatoes  and  at  least  double  this  amount 
with  roots  of  medium  size.  To  plant  the  entire  area  early,  that 


442  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

is,  chiefly  from  the  first  drawing,  these  amounts  will  need  to  be 
about  doubled.  By  using  vine  cuttings,  clipped  from  the  plants 
set  out  early,  the  acreage  can  be  increased  without  additional 
expenditure  for  "  seed  potatoes." 

414.  Drawing  or  removing  the  slips.  —  When  the  shoots 
show  a  length  of  about  4  inches  above  ground,  or  a  total 
length  of  6  or  7  inches,  and  when  roots  have  begun  to  de- 
velop on  the  lower  parts  of  these  slips,  they  should  be 
drawn  and  transplanted  to  the  field  (Fig.  191).     The  bed 
should  first  be  watered.     The  slips  should  be  so  carefully 
pulled  as  not  to  move  the  "  seed  potatoes."     While  not 
generally  practiced  outside  of  the  trucking  regions,  it  is 
best  promptly  to  dip  the  base  of  each  slip  in  a  stiff  batter 
made  of  clay  and  fresh  cow  manure.     The  object  is  to  sup- 
ply moisture  until  the  plant  is  rooted  and  to  insure  the 
closest  possible  contact  of  the  plant  with  the  soil-moisture. 

By  keeping  the  bed  watered,  it  should  be  ready  to  afford 
a  second  drawing  about  10  to  14  days  after  the  first,  and 
then  after  a  still  longer  interval,  a  third  drawing  can  often 
be  made. 

415.  Transplanting.  —  The  rows  are  first  flattened  with 
a  harrow  or  board,  so  as  to  destroy  the  crust  and  young 
vegetation,  and  to  insure  a  soft  bed  of  soil.     Then  careful 
growers  mark  the  rows  with  suitable  devices  so  as  to  make 
the  plants  stand  at  uniform  distances  apart.     One  person 
drops  the  slip  near  its  position,  and  another  inserts  it  in 
place,  carefully  pressing  the  soil  around  the  slip.     In  setting 
out  potatoes,  the  farmer  uses  either  a  garden  dibble  or  small 
trowel,  or  a  short  sharpened  stick ;    on  soft  soil  the  slip  is 
pressed  into  place  by  the  use  of  special  devices,  about  as  long 
as  a  walking-stick,  which  usually  consist  of  either  (1)  a 


SWEET-POTATO 


443 


single  lath,  having  a  base  hollowed  out  and  covered  with 
leather,  or  (2)  wooden  tongs  made  of  two  laths  (Fig.  192). 

On  many  farms,  it  is  customary  to 
wait  for  a  rain  and  to  transplant  the 
slips  or  vine  cuttings  only  after  a  rain. 
If  the.  land  has  been  well  prepared  and 
repeatedly  harrowed,  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  wait  on  the  weather.  Some 
growers  prefer  to  set  slips  without  a 
rain.  In  the  latter  case,  it  is  usual  to 
water  the  plants.  The  water  serves 
to  settle  the  soil  more  closely  around 
the  stem  than  would  be  possible  if 
reliance  were  placed  entirely  on  the 
moisture  in  the  soil.  After  watering 
sweet-potatoes  or  any  other  plant,  one 
must  be  careful  to  cover  the  watered 
spots  with  a  thin  layer  of  dry  soil,  to 
prevent  evaporation  and  baking. 

416.     Transplanting     machines.  — 


FIG.    192.  — DEVICES 

FOR    SETTING     SwEET- 

POTATO     SLIPS     AND 
VINE-CUTTINGS. 


FIG.  193. — A  TRANSPLANTING  MACHINE. 


When  a  large  acre- 
age is  cultivated  in 
sweet-potatoes,  it  is 
profitable  to  employ 
a  transplanting 
machine  (Fig.  193). 
It  sets  and  waters 
the  plants  as  fast 
as  the  team  pulls 
the  machine  along 
the  rows.  Two  men 


444 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CEOPS 


on  seats  at  the  rear  drop  the  plants  at  the  required  in- 
tervals. 

417.  Time  of  transplanting.  —  Bedding  may  be  done 
about  three  weeks  before  the  time  when  the  last  light  frost 
is  expected.  The  soil  must  be  well  warmed  before  trans- 
planted slips  will  thrive  in  the  field.  In  the  central  part 
of  the  cotton-belt,  transplanting  about  April  1  may  be 


FIG.  194.  —  SWEET-POTATOES  ATTACHED  TO  A  SECTION  OF  PLANTED  VINE. 

regarded  as  early.  To  determine  the  last  date  at  which 
setting  in  the  field  may  be  done  with  the  expectation  of  a 
fair  yield,  a  period  of  at  least  3^-  months  should  be  allowed 
before  the  usual  date  of  the  first  fall  frost.  In  this  region, 
it  scarcely  pays  to  set  slips  or  vines  after  July  15 ;  and  in 
general  the  yield  from  the  late  plantings  are  much  smaller 
than  from  those  made  in  mid-season. 


8  WEET-PO  TA  TO  445 

418.  Propagation  by  the  use  of  vine  cuttings.  —  When 
the  bedded  potatoes  do  not  furnish  enough  slips  for  the 
desired  area,  they  may  be  supplemented  by  setting  out  in 
June  or  early  July  sections  of  about  18  inches  of  vine  cut 
from  the  early  plants.     Vine  cuttings  are  usually  set  out 
just  after  a  rain  by  a  stick  or  lath  with  concave  base, 
pressed  down  on  the  center  of  the  vine  (Fig.  192). 

Roots  produced  by  vine  cuttings  are  preferred  for 
bedding.  This  is  because  such  potatoes  usually  escape 
black  rot,  a  disease  which,  if  present  in  the  bed,  is  con- 
veyed to  the  slips  by  the  diseased  potatoes.  The  prefer- 
ence for  potatoes  from  vine  cuttings  (Fig.  194)  may  also 
be  due  to  their  greater  soundness,  sometimes  attributable 
to  the  late  date  of  planting. 

419.  Distance  between  plants.  —  In  the  cotton  states, 
the  rows   are  usually  about    3^  feet    apart.     Truckers 
sometimes  plant  in  narrower  rows.     In  several  experi- 
ments, a  distance  of  18  inches  between  plants  afforded 
larger  yields  than  were  obtained  either  by  closer  or  wider 
spacing. 

420.  Preparation  of  land.  —  It  too  frequently  happens 
that  the.  land  is  merely  thrown  into  beds  without  any  pre- 
vious plowing.     For  this  crop,  which  makes  a  large  yield 
per  acre  and  requires  a  soft,  mellow  soil  for  the  easy  trans- 
planting of  the  slips  and  for  the  full  development  of  the 
crop,  it  is  profitable  to  give  thorough  preparation.     This 
should  consist  of  broadcast  plowing,  repeated  harrowing, 
and  the  formation  of  beds,  which  are  usually  thrown  up 
over  a  furrow  in  which  fertilizer  has  been  applied.     Before 
bedding  and  after  the  fertilizer  is  drilled  in,  the  latter 
should  be  thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  soil  by  running 


446  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

some  cultivating  implement  in  the  open  furrow.  It  is 
usually  better  for  the  beds  to  be  formed  several  weeks 
before  the  date  of  transplanting,  so  as  to  permit  the  soil 
to  be  settled  by  rain.  The  beds  should  be  kept  covered 
with  a  loose  layer  of  soil  and  free  from  crust  and  vegetation 
by  the  repeated  use  of  a  light  harrow. 

To  produce  the  largest  yield,  the  depth  of  plowing  should 
be  considerable,  and  deep  plowing  should  probably  be 
the  rule  where  the  crop  is  to  be  used  as  stock  food.  How- 
ever, the  market  prefers  a  rather  short  potato,  and  this 
shape  is  favored  by  rather  shallow  plowing;  that  is,  to  a 
depth  of  not  more  than  5  inches. 

421.  High  and  low  beds.  —  While  level  tillage  can  be 
practiced  for  sweet-potatoes  set  out  late  on  sandy,  well- 
drained  soil,  it  is  probably  advisable  for  the  planting,  as 
a  rule,  to  be  done  on  beds;    however,  these  should  be 
pulled  down  by  the  use  of  the  harrow  until  elevated  only 
3  or  4  inches  above  the  water-furrows.     Planting  on  low 
ridges    affords    a   warmer,    more   perfectly   drained   soil. 
The  extremely  high  ridges  sometimes  seen  add  greatly 
to  the  cost  of  cultivation,  and  unless  the  season  be  very 
wet,  high  ridges  do  not  materially  increase  the  yield. 

422.  Tillage.  —  Cultivation  should  be  given  whenever 
a  crust  begins  to  form,  or  when  the  first  appearance  of 
young  weeds  or  grass  makes  it  necessary.     Tillage  should 
be  shallow.     The  most  satisfactory  implements  are  those 
forms  of  one-horse  cultivators  equipped  with  small  points, 
so  as  to  be  run  as  near  as  possible  to  the  plants  without 
covering  them  with  soil.     A  scrape  or  any  other  imple- 
ment doing  shallow  work  is  also  suitable.     Just  before 
each  cultivation,  if  the  vines  have  begun  to  run,  they 


8  WEET-POTA  TO  447 

should  be  turned  into  alternate  middles,  using  a  stick, 
so  as  to  get  them  out  of  the  way  of  the  implement.  At 
the  next  cultivation,  the  position  of  the  vines  is  reversed. 
Tillage  usually  ceases  when  the  vines  meet  across  the  row, 
though  it  is  still  desirable  to  pull  or  remove  with  a  hoe 
large  weeds  and  bunches  of  grass. 

Some  cultivators  are  equipped  with  a  vine-lifting  attach- 
ment, which  makes  it  unnecessary  to  move  the  vines  into 
alternate  middles  by  hand. 

423.  Pruning    the    vines.  —  Experiments    have    shown 
that  pruning  the  vines  in  order  to  obtain  vine  cuttings 
for  propagation  reduces  the  yield.     The  few  experiments 
so  far  made  do  not  agree  in  showing  any  advantage  from 
the  custom  of  lifting  or  moving  the  vines  late  in  the  season 
to  prevent  their  rooting  at  the  joints  or  nodes. 

HARVESTING  AND  STORING  SWEET-POTATOES 

424.  When  to  dig  potatoes.  —  The  root  of  the  sweet- 
potato  has  not  reached  maturity  and  condition  for  storage 
until,  when  a  cut  is  made,  the  wound  heals  over  with  a 
whitish  appearance.     If  the  broken  place  becomes  dis- 
colored, the  potato  is  immature. 

Since  the  price  is  much  higher  in  August  and  early  in 
September  than  during  October  and  November,  a  part  of 
the  crop  may  be  dug  very  early,  even  at  a  sacrifice  of  yield 
and  maturity.  The  bulk  of  the  crop  is  not  dug  until  about 
the  time  of  the  first  fall  frost.  Some  prefer  to  dig  potatoes 
before  they  are  touched  by  frost,  but  the  frosting  of  the 
vines  does  no  harm  if  harvesting  is  then  done  before  the 
decay  extends  from  the  vines  to  the  roots.  Late  digging, 


448 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


if  the  potatoes  be  not  frost  bitten,  improves  the  keeping 
qualities  of  the  crop. 

425.  Methods  of  harvesting.  —  The  long  vines  must 
first  be  disposed  of.  They  are  usually  pulled  by  running 
a  plow  on  each  side  of  the  row.  This  work  is  done  much 
more  satisfactorily  if  the  line  of  plants  be  barred  off  with 
a  turn-plow,  to  the  beam  of  which  is  attached  a  rolling 


FIG.  195.  —  SPECIAL  PLOWS  FOR  DIGGING  SWEET-POTATOES. 

coulter,  which  cuts  the  vines  close  to  the  row  (Fig.  1 95) .  The 
potatoes  are  then  upturned  by  the  use  of  a  large  turn-plow. 
If  the  work  of  harvesting  is  performed  by  careful  laborers, 
sorting  may  be  done  in  the  field,  the  injured  and  unmarket- 
able roots  being  gathered  in  different  baskets  from  those 
containing  the  marketable  potatoes.  With  less  careful 
labor,  it  is  better  to  gather  all  potatoes  together,  sorting 
them  at  the  place  of  storage  or  of  packing.  Extreme  care 
should  be  taken  to  avoid  bruising  the  potatoes,  since  germs 
of  decay  enter  through  bruises  and  cuts.  One  means  of 
reducing  bruising  consists  in  gathering  the  roots  in  small 


SWEET-POTATO  449 

baskets  or  boxes,  which  are  not  emptied  until  after  these 
packages  are  hauled  to  the  place  of  storing  or  packing. 

Sweet-potatoes  for  market  are  generally  packed  in 
ventilated  barrels  covered  with  burlap  cloth,  though 
smaller  packages  are  also  used  to  a  limited  extent. 

426.  Yields.  —  The  average  yield  for  the  entire  acreage 
cultivated  in  sweet-potatoes  in  the  United  States  is  usually 
reported  as  about  100  bushels  per  acre.     Good  farmers 
expect  to  make  fully  200  bushels  per  acre,  and  yields  above 
500  bushels  per  acre  have  been  repeatedly  reported. 

The  substitution  for  corn  of  sweet-potatoes  (supple- 
mented by  peanuts  or  other  crop  rich  in  nitrogen)  as  a 
food  for  hogs  in  the  fall  months  is  often  advisable  on 
sandy  soils.  For  very  sandy  soils  are  not  well  suited  to 
corn,  but,  when  properly  fertilized,  they  make  good  crops 
of  sweet-potatoes.  On  such  soils  it  is  sometimes  as  easy 
to  make  200  bushels  of  sweet-potatoes  as  to  produce  30 
bushels  of  corn  to  the  acre.  In  this  case  the  amount  of 
nutritive  material  in  the  potatoes  is  about  twice  as  much 
as  in  the  corn  from  a  similar  area. 

The  sweet-potato  largely  or  entirely  loses  this  relative 
advantage  on  richer  soils,  particularly  on  those  consisting 
largely  of  clay. 

427.  Conditions    necessary    in    storing    potatoes.  —  In 
order  that  sweet-potatoes  may  keep  in  perfect  condition 
throughout  the  winter,  so  as  to  prolong  the  time  of  use  or 
to  be  sold  at  the  higher  prices  prevailing  after  Christmas, 
they  must  fulfill  the  following  conditions :  — 

(1)  The  potatoes  when  stored  must  be  sound,  all  bruised, 
cut,  or  diseased  potatoes  being  excluded  from  the  storage 
place. 

2a 


450  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

(2)  The  roots  must  be  subjected  to  a  certain  degree  of 
drying  or  evaporation,  which  may  be  induced  either  by 
ventilation  alone  while  the  potatoes  are  kept  in  the  shade, 
or  by  exposure  to  artificial  heat,  combined  with  ventilation. 

(3)  Rats  and  mice  must  be  carefully  excluded. 

(4)  The  potatoes  must  not  be  allowed  to  become  so 
much  colder  than  the  air  coming  in  contact  with  them 
as  to  cause  the  latter  to  condense  or  deposit  its  contained 
moisture  upon  the  cold  surface  of  the  potatoes. 

428.  Banking.  —  The  method  in  common  use  in  the 
cotton  states  by  those  who  store  potatoes  for  home  use, 
or  in  small  quantities   for  market,   consists  in  keeping 
them  through  the  winter  in  conical  banks  or  mounds, 
each  containing  10  to  25  bushels. 

To  make  a  potato  bank,  cut  a  small  circular  trench  around  a 
well-drained,  somewhat  sheltered  spot.  With  the  excavated 
earth,  slightly  build  up  the  ground  on  which  the  heap  is  to  stand. 
Place  a  layer  of  straw  over  this,  and  on  it  build  up  a  cone-shaped 
heap  of  potatoes  around  a  central  ventilator,  made  of  several 
poles  or  boards.  Cover  the  potatoes  with  pine  needles  or  with 
clean,  dry  straw.  Over  the  straw  or  leaves,  place  a  layer  of  corn- 
stalks to  support  the  weight  of  the  outer  covering  of  soil.  A 
few  weeks  later,  after  the  potatoes  have  gone  through  a  sweat, 
and  before  cold  weather,  place  a  layer  of  soil  over  the  corn  stalks ; 
and  in  cold  weather,  stop  the  ventilator  with  a  capping  of  hay. 
The  whole  is  best  inclosed  under  a  cheap  shelter  of  boards, 
though  sometimes  the  bank  is  left  with  no  covering  except  a 
few  boards  placed  over  the  ventilator. 

429.  Keeping  potatoes  by  the  kiln-drying  process.  — • 
Where  sweet-potatoes  are  extensively  grown  for  marketing 
in  winter,  they  are  stored  in  houses  of  special  construction. 
These  are  much  more  satisfactory  than  banks  in  all  regions. 


SWEET-POTATO 


451 


By  the  use  of  such  storage  houses,  labor  is  economized, 
and  the  loss  from  decay  is  very  greatly  reduced. 

In  special  potato  houses,  even  in  the  cotton-belt,  arti- 
ficial heat  is  advantageous,  especially  during  the  sweating 
period  and  during  the  coldest  weather  in  winter. 


FIG.  196.  —  END  VIEW  OF  A  HOUSE  FOK  STORING  SWEET-POTATOES. 

A,  A,  A,  A,  Bins,  four  feet  wide,  with  slatted  floor  and  walls  ;  B,  B,  pas- 
sageways above  and  below,  with  doors  at  ends  ;  V,  ventilating  door  ;  x,  Xt 
loose  boards  forming  floor  of  upper  passageway. 


452  SOUTHEEN  FIELD   CROPS 

430.  Example     of    a     sweet-potato     house.  —  Storage 
houses  may  vary  in  capacity  from  a  few  hundred  bushels 
to  several  thousand.     The  construction  and  management 
of  such  a  house,  used  by  an  Alabama  farmer,  -may  serve  as 
an  example.     The  essential  features  of  such  a  house  are 
the  following :    (1)  double  walls  filled  with  sawdust  and  a 
layer  of  sand  or  sawdust  above  the  ceiling;    (2)  one  or 
more  ventilators,  and  transoms  over~the  doors ;   (3)  bins 
slatted  on  all  sides  and  bottoms,  so  that  the  air  'has  free 
access.    Figure  196  supplies  additional  information  regard- 
ing some  of  the  details. 

An  ordinary  stove  is  placed  in  this  house,  with  stove-pipe  and 
flue.  For  the  first  few  weeks  after  the  potatoes  are  stored,  fire 
is  kept  burning  to  drive  off  surplus  moisture  and  to  prevent  sweat- 
ing. Again,  in  cold  or  damp  weather  in  winter,  fires  are  main- 
tained in  order  to  keep  the  air  inside  warmer  and  dryer  than  that 
outside.  In  this  latitude  the  main  purpose  of  fires  and  of  a 
ventilator  is  to  prevent  the  condensation  of  the  moisture  of  the 
air  upon  the  cool  surface  of  the  potatoes.  The  temperature 
within  this  particular  house  varies  between  40°  and  70°,  after  the 
curing  process  is  complete.  In  the  sweet-potato  districts,  where 
such  houses  are  in  common  use,  the  temperature  for  the  first 
few  weeks  is  kept  at  about  90°  F.,  during  which  time  ample 
ventilation  is  given  to  carry  off  the  evaporated  moisture.  The 
preferred  winter  temperature  within  a  sweet-potato  house  is 
around  50°  and  always,  if  possible,  below  65°. 

ENEMIES 

431.  Insects.  —  The   sweet-potato   has   relatively   few 
very  injurious  insect  enemies.     However,  in  some  fields  in 
Texas  and  Louisiana  the  sweet-potato  root-borer  or  weevil 
(Cylas  formicarius)  is  very  destructive,  since  it  tunnels 


SWEET-POTATO  453 

through  and  ruins  the  maturing  potatoes  (Fig.  197).  No 
treatment  is  known  except  to  avoid  storing  or  bedding 
any  infested  roots,  which  may  be  recognized  by  the  bur- 
rows within  them.  Care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  intro- 


FIG.  197.  —  CROSS  SECTION  THROUGH  A  SWEET-POTATO,  SHOWING  INJU- 
RIES BY  SWEET-POTATO  ROOT-BORER. 


ducing  this  serious  pest  on  sweet-potatoes  brought  east- 
ward from  the  infested  regions. 

For  various  leaf-eating  insects,  occasionally  attacking 
the  foliage  of  this  plant,  the  recommendation  is  to  dip 
the  slips,  before  being  set,  in  a  solution  of  arsenate  of  lead, 


454 


SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 


and,  if  necessary,  to  spray  the  vines  with  this  or  with  Paris 

green.     Cutworms  may  be  poisoned  before  setting  the 

slips,  as  suggested  in  paragraph  379. 

432.   Fungous   diseases.  —  The   enlarged    root  of    the 

sweet-potato  is  subject  to  various  forms  of  decay,  each 
one  due  to  a  different  germ  or 
disease-producing  organism.  The 
most  serious  of  these  is  the  follow- 
ing :  — 

Black-rot  (Sphceronema  fimbria- 
tum).  — The  presence  of  this  fungus 
within  the  potato  root  causes  black 
spots  on  the  surface  (Fig.  198). 
These  spots  are  slightly  depressed, 
and  the  dark  color  extends  deep 
into  the  enlarged  root,  which  com- 
pletely decays  in  the  field  or  during 
storage.  If  diseased  potatoes  are 
bedded,  the  slips  are  also  diseased. 
The  remedies  consist  in  (1)  bedding 
no  tubers  thus  diseased;  (2)  de- 
stroying any  slips  on  the  white 
stems  of  which  are  found  any  dark 
spots;  and  (3)  rotation  of  crops, 

avoiding  the  planting  of  sweet-potatoes  for  two  years  in 

succession  on  the  same  land  and  avoiding  any  land  where 

this  disease  has  occurred  in  recent  years. 

In  addition  to  these  measures,  J.  L.  Winslow  soaks  the  roots 
for  five  minutes  just  before  bedding,  in  a  weak  solution  of  for- 
malin, using  1  ounce  of  this  liquid  to  8  gallons  of  water.  He  also 
dips  the  slips  into  a  slightly  stronger  solution  of  formalin.  It  is 


FIG.  198.  —  BLACK-ROT  ON' 
ROOT  AND  SLIP  OF  SWEET- 
POTATO. 


SWEET-POTATO  455 

improbable  that  this  treatment  destroys  that  part  of  the  fungus 
lying  below  the  surface,  but  it  doubtless  reduces  the  amount  of 
disease.  No  slips  should  be  purchased  without  a  guarantee  that 
they  are  grown  from  potatoes  known  to  be  free  from  black-rot. 

Soft-rot  causes  stored  sweet-potatoes  to  shrivel  and  decay. 
To  minimize  this  injury,  avoid  bruising  the  sweet-potatoes  and 
remove  and  burn  all  diseased  roots  as  soon  as  seen. 

For  dry-rot,  destroy  all  diseased  roots.  Sweet-potatoes  are 
also  attacked  by  'other  diseases.  The  general  recommendation 
is  to  avoid  growing  this  crop  twice  in  succession  on  the  same  land 
or  even  at  short  intervals. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

1.  If  practicable,  prepare  and  plant  a  propagating  bed  of 
sweet-potatoes.     If  this  cannot  be  done,  place  at  least  a  few  sweet- 
potatoes  in  damp  soil  in  a  box  kept  in  a  warm  place.     As  soon 
as  buds  and  shoots  develop  make  drawings  of 

(a)  A  sweet-potato,  with  sprouting  buds,  and  of 
(6)  A  detached  slip  or  shoot  long  enough  to  be  trans- 
planted, showing  especially  the  location  of  the  roots. 

2.  Make  a  drawing  showing  the  position  and  direction  of  the 
enlarged  roots  (potatoes)  as  they  grow  in  the  soil. 

3.  Students  should  participate  in  any  of  the  operations  con- 
nected with  the  growing  of  this  crop,  which  may  be  in  progress 
when  this  chapter  is  studied. 

4.  If  this  subject  is  studied  in  the  fall,  a  storage  bank  of  sweet- 
potatoes  should  be  made  by  the  students,  or  else  inspection  made 
of  a  bank  or  potato-house  on  some  farm  in  the  neighborhood. 

LITERATURE 

FITZ,  JAMES.     Sweet  Potato  Culture.     N.  Y.,  1890. 

PRICE,   R.  H.     Sweet  Potatoes.     Buls.  Nos.  28  and  36,  Tex. 

Expr.  Sta. 
DUGGAR,  J.  F.     Sweet  Potatoes.     Farmer's  Bui.  No.  26,  U.  S, 

Dept.  Agr. 


456  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

NESBIT,  D.  M.     Sweet  Potatoes.     Farmer's  Bui.  No.  129,  U.  S. 

Dept.  Agr. 
MORGAN,  H.  A.,  and  BURNETTE,  H.  F.    Sweet  Potatoes.    La. 

Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  22. 

BURNETTE,  H.  F.     Sweet  Potatoes.     Bui.  No.  30. 
NEWMAN,   J.   S.     Southern   Gardener's  Practical  Manual,   pp. 

120-155.     1906. 
WAITE,  M.  B.     Sweet  Potatoes.     Bailey's  Cyclo.  Agr.,  Vol.  II, 

pp.  613-623. 
DUGGAR,  B.  M.    Fungous  Diseases  of  Plants,    pp.  344,  348-349. 

New  York,  1909. 


CHAPTER   XXVII 


CASSAVA  —  MANIHOT  UTILISSIMA 

CASSAVA,  in  tropical  countries  called  manioc,  is  a  shrub 
4  to  10  feet  high,  which,  in  general  appearance  and  foliage, 
somewhat  resembles  the  castor 
bean  plant  (Fig.  199).    Cassava 
belongs  to  the  milk-weed  fam- 
ily (Euphorbiacece) .     Its  native 
country  is  Brazil,  but  it  is  now 
cultivated  in  many  tropical  and 
semi  tropical  regions. 

433.  Kinds.  —  Cassava    has 
been  divided  into  two   classes, 
namely,  the  bitter  and  the  sweet. 
Bitter  cassava  is  the  kind  gen- 
erally grown  in  the  tropics.     It 
requires  more  than  one  year  to 
make  its  best  growth  and  has 
not  been  cultivated  extensively 
in  the  Umted  States.      Sweet 
cassava  is  the  kind  grown  in 
this  country. 

434.  Climate     and    distribu- 
tion. —  The  cassava  requires  a 
season  of  about  seven  months 

457 


FIG.  199.  —  CASSAVA  PLANT, 
SHOWING  STEMS  AND  EN- 
LARGED ROOTS. 


458  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

without  frost,  and  the  yield  is  larger  if  this  period  is  still 
longer.  While  the  plant  has  been  grown  north  of  the 
central  parts  of  the  Gulf  States,  yet  its  cultivation  is 
scarcely  practicable  above  the  southern  third  of  these 
states.  The  plant  is  very  sensitive  to  frost.  Moreover, 
its  northward  extension  is  limited  by  (1)  the  difficulty 
of  saving  through  winter  the  stems,  used  as  propagating 
material,  and  (2)  by  the  fact  that  where  the  ground  freezes 
it  is  impracticable  to  leave  the  roots  in  the  ground  until 
they  are  needed  for  use. 

435.  Uses  and  composition.  —  The  only  valuable  por- 
tion of  the  cassava  plant  is  the  root.     From  each  plant 
grow  4  to  8  roots  in  a  cluster,  each  of  which  is  usually 
1  to  2|-  inches  in  diameter,  and  2  to  3  feet  long.     These 
roots  are  rich  in  starch.     They  are  used  for  the  manu- 
facture of  starch  and  of  the  human  foods,  tapioca  and 
arrowroot.     Their   more   common  use,   however,   in  the 
United  States  is  as  food  for  hogs,   poultry,   and  other 
live-stock.     Fresh  cassava  roots  contain  25  to  30  per  cent 
of  starch,  and  the  total  dry  matter  averages  about  34  per 
cent,  or  a  little  more  than  in  sweet-potatoes.     As  cassava 
contains  only  about  1  per  cent   of  protein   (nitrogenous 
material)  the  roots  should  be  fed  in  connection  with  foods 
rich  in  nitrogen,  such  as  cowpeas,  peanuts,  and  velvet 
beans. 

436.  Poisonous   constituent.  —  The    bitter   varieties    of 
cassava,  as  grown  in  tropical  countries,  contain  in  the  un- 
cooked  fresh  roots   appreciable  amounts  of  the  poison, 
prussic  acid.    However,  this  poison  is  volatile,  and  is  easily 
removed  by  heat  or  by  exposure  for  a  few  hours  to  the  air. 
The  amount  of  this  poison  found  in  oweet  cassava  is  too 


CASSAVA  459 

small  to  be  dangerous  to  man  or  to  live-stock.  The  greater 
part  of  the  prussic  acid  is  contained  in  the  bark  or  skin  of 
the  root  and  in  its  outer  layers. 

437.  Soils  and  fertilizers.  —  Cassava  requires  a  rather 
fertile,  loose,  sandy  soil.     A  sandy  soil  is  not  only  necessary 
for  the  best  growth  of  the  plant,  but  also  in  order  that  the 
roots  may  be  easily  pulled.     The  land  must  be  well  drained 
and  warm,  so  as  to  make  the  season  of  growth  as  long  as 
possible.     Cassava  thrives  on  soil  too  sandy  and  dry  for 
corn  and  may  be  regarded  as  a  drought-resistant  crop. 

It  is  best  to  furnish  the  nitrogen  for  cassava  by  grow- 
ing a  preceding  crop  of  cowpeas  or  velvet  beans.  In  case 
cassava  is  not  preceded  by  a  leguminous  crop,  it  should 
be  fertilized  with  a  complete  fertilizer,  such  as  the  fol- 
lowing :  — 

200  Ib.  acid  phosphate  per  acre, 
50  Ib.  muriate  of  potash  or  200  Ib.  of  kainit,  and 
200  Ib.  cotton-seed  meal. 

In  a  single  test  in  Florida,  it  was  found  better  to  apply 
all  of  the  fertilizer  before  planting  than  to  divide  it  into 
several  applications. 

438.  Preparation,  propagation,  and  cultivation. — Prepa- 
ration consists  in  broadcast  or  level  plowing  and  harrow- 
ing.    Plowing  need  not  be  very  deep,  for  this  would  have 
the  effect  of  making  the  roots  grow  deeper  in  the  soil  and 
hence  make  the  pulling  of  the  roots  more  difficult.     The 
land  should  be  marked  off  in   checks   4  feet  each  way, 
and  the  fertilizer  drilled  in  and  mixed.     At  the  intersec- 
tion of  the  furrows  or  marks,  the  sections  of  stem  contain- 
ing the  eyes  or  buds  should  be  dropped,  stepped  on,  and 
covered  with  2  to  4  inches  of  soil. 


460  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

Cassava  is  propagated  in  the  United  States  only  by 
planting  portions  of  the  stem,  which  are  usually  cut  into 
lengths  of  4  to  6  inches,  each  section  containing  2  or  more 
buds  or  eyes.  It  has  been  found  best  to  drop  two  short 
sections  in  each  hill,  though  many  farmers  plant  only  one. 

In  a  field  of  cassava  there  are  usually  a  number  of  vacant 
hills,  chiefly  due  to  the  killing  of  the  buds  during  winter  on  the 
section  of  stem  planted  in  those  particular  hills,  but  sometimes 
due  to  failure  to  press  the  cutting  into  close  contact  with  the 
moist  soil.  On  account  of  the  difficulty  in  getting  a  perfect  stand, 
some  growers  find  it  advantageous  to  sprout  the  cuttings  in 
specially  prepared  beds  similar  to  those  used  for  sweet-potatoes, 
in  which  beds  the  necessary  watering  can  be  given.  Sprouted 
cuttings  require  especial  care  in  planting,  so  as  to  avoid  breaking 
off  the  young  shoots. 

Tillage  should  be  level  and  shallow,  as  this  is  a  very  shallow- 
rooted  plant ;  it  should  be  repeated  until  the  plants  thoroughly 
shade  the  soil.  Usually  one  or  two  hoeings  will  be  necessary, 
but  the  amount  of  hoe  work  can  be  decreased  by  using  the 
weeder  before  the  young  plants  appear. 

439.  Harvesting.  —  If  the  stems  are  to  be  used  for 
planting,  they  should  be  cut  before  the  occurrence  of  the 
first  frost,  since  the  buds  are  easily  killed.  The  stem  is 
cut  6  inches  above  the  ground  so  as  to  leave  a  stub  by 
which  to  pull  out  the  cluster  of  roots.  Pulling  is  done 
either  by  hand  alone,  or  by  the  help  of  a  grubbing  hoe, 
or  by  the  use  of  a  cant-hook,  such  as  is  used  in  handling 
logs.  This  hook  is  caught  under  the  center  of  the  plant, 
the  short  end  of  the  stick  placed  on  the  ground,  and  the 
long  end  lifted  so  as  to  raise  the  cluster  out  of  the  soil. 

Cassava  roots  keep  best  when  left  in  the  ground  until 
needed  for  use,  provided  the  soil  is  well  drained  and  does 
not  freeze. 


CASSAVA 


461 


440.    Storing  stems  or  "  seed  canes  "  for  planting.  — 

One  of  the  chief  difficulties  in  growing  cassava  near  the 
northern  edge  of  the  region  in  which  it  succeeds  is  that  of 
keeping  the  canes  or  stems  through  the  winter  without 
injury  to  the  bud,  as  the  result  of  cold,  excessive  dryness, 


FIG.  200.  —  METHOD  OF  PREPARING  BED  FOR  KEEPING  CASSAVA  SEED 
STEMS  OVER  WINTER. 

or  too  much  moisture.  In  general,  the  stems  are  kept 
through  the  winter  by  bedding  them  (Fig.  200)  somewhat 
as  sugar-cane  is  bedded. 

The  spot  selected  for  a  cassava  seed-bed  should  be  well  drained, 
and  a  slight  excavation  should  be  made,  forming  a  succession  of 
sloping  surfaces..  Two  or  three  layers  of  stems  are  laid  on  this 
in  a  nearly  horizontal  position,  the  base  of  each  being  pressed  into 
close  contact  with  the  earth.  The  covering  consists  of  3  or  4 
inches  of  straw,  on  top  of  which  is  placed  at  first  a  layer  of  about 
2  inches  of  soil,  which,  before  very  cold  weather,  is  increased  to 
4  inches. 

Another  method  of  storing  cassava  stems  consists  in  standing 
the  stems  upright  in  a  trench,  the  whole  being  covered  with  a 
thick  layer  of  straw,  weighted  down  with  a  small  amount  of 
earth.  Cassava  beds  should  be  under  a  roof,  and  some  growers 
build  a  permanent  house,  inside  of  which  the  canes  are  stood  on 
end  and  covered  as  just  stated. 

441.  Enemies.  —  Cassava  has  few  serious  enemies 
among  insects  or  plant  diseases.  One  of  the  most  trouble- 
some is  "  Trenching  "  (Glceosporium  manihot).  This  fun- 
gus kills  the  tips  of  the  branches  and  then  .spreads 


462  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CHOPS 

downward.     Injury  can  be  prevented  by  planting  only 
stems  from  plants  that  are  entirely  free  from  this  disease. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

1.  In  case  cassava  stems  can  be  obtained,  drawings  should 
be  made  showing 

(a)  how  the  stems  branch; 

(6)  locations  of  leaf  scars  and  buds. 

2.  In  a  region  where  this  plant  is  grown,  students  .should 
inspect  a  cassava  "  seed-bed  "  and  should  participate  in,  or  at 
least   observe,    any   processes    of   propagation,    cultivation,    or 
harvesting  which  may  be  in  progress  at  the  time. 

LITERATURE 

STOCKBRIDGE,  H.  E.     Cassava  as  a  Money  Crop.     Fla.  Expr. 

Sta.,  Buls.  Nos.  35  and  49. 
WILEY,  H.  W.     Sweet  Cassava.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Chem., 

Bui.  No.  44. 
WILEY,  H.  W.     The  Manufacture  of  Starch  from  Potatoes  and 

Cassava.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Div.  Chem.,  Bui.  No.  55. 
TRACY,    S.    M.     Cassava.     U.    S.    Dept.    Agr.,    Farmer's    Bui. 

No.  167,  and  Bailey's  Cyclo.  Agr.,  Vol.  II,  pp.  227-229. 
MOORE,  C.  C.     Cassava  :  Its  Content  of  Hydrocyanic  Acid  and 

Starch.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Chem.,  Bui.  No.   105. 


CHAPTER   XXVIII 
PEANUT  —  ARACHIS  HYPOGGEA 

THE  peanut  is  the  principal  sale  crop  in  a  number  of 
counties  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Virginia,  in  the  eastern 
part  of  North  Carolina,  and  in  one  section  in  Tennessee. 
Virginia  and  North  Carolina  produce  more  than  half  of 
the  commercial  crop  of  the  United  States.  The  peanut 
is  grown  for  local  use  and  as  food  for  live-stock  in  every 
southern  state,  and  in  a  number  of  states  further  north 
and  west. 

In  America  the  principal  use  of  the  peanut  is  for  eating 
after  being  parched.  It  is  also  extensively  employed  in 
confectionery.  It  is  one  of  the  best  foods  for  hogs  and 
poultry,  and  is  also  fed  to  other  classes  of  live-stock. 

442.  Range.  —  The  peanut  is  regarded  as  a  native  of 
Brazil,  though  an  Asiatic  origin  has  also  been  claimed 
for  it.  It  became  an  important  article  of  commerce  in 
Africa  much  earlier  than  in  the  United  States.  In  this 
country  the  growing  of  peanuts  for  the  market  is  an  indus- 
try that'  has  grown  up  since  1866,  partly  due  to  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  edible  qualities  of  this  nut  spread  throughout 
the  country  by  the  soldiers  who  had  fought  in  the  peanut- 
growing  section  of  Virginia. 

Although  the  American  crop  of  peanuts  probably  ap- 
proaches twenty  million  bushels,  including  those  con- 

463 


464  SOUTHE&lr  FIELD   CROPS 

sumed  on  the  farm,  this  is  only  a  fraction  of  the  world's 
supply  of  peanuts.  A  single  city  in  France,  Marseilles, 
imports  annually  a  larger  amount  of  peanuts  than  was 
produced  a  few  years  ago  in  the  entire  United  States.  In 
Marseilles  the  principal  use  of  these  imported  African  and 
Indian  peanuts  is  for  the  manufacture  of  oil,  a  use  for 
which  the  peanut  has  not  been  extensively  employed  in 
the  United  States. 

443.  Description.  —  The  peanut  plant .  belongs  to  the 
pea  family  (Papilionacece) ,  which  also  includes  the  clovers, 
vetches,  and  beans.  Like  the  others  just  mentioned,  the 
peanut  is  a  soil-improving  plant.  Its  roots  bear  numerous 
enlargements,  or  tubercles,  through  which  the  plant  is  able 
to  draw  its  nitrogen  from  the  air  (Fig.  201). 

This  plant  is  peculiar  in  bearing  its  seed  or  fruit  under- 
ground. The  flowers  are  borne  on  small  stems  springing 
from  the  axil  of  the  leaf.  The  flower  stem  turns  down- 
ward, and  after  the  flower  is  fertilized,  the  tip  of  the 
pistil,  which  is  sharp,  grows  into  the  ground.  Soon  after 
the  long  slender  portion,  called  the  "  peg  "  has  pierced 
the  ground,  its  lower  tip  enlarges  and  becomes  the  pod  or 
shell.  The  inclosed  seeds,  which  are  commonly  called  nuts, 
are  more  properly  peas. 

,  The  peanut  plant  is  annual,  making  its  growth  in  the 
warm  season,  and  easily  killed  by  frost.  Each  leaf  con- 
sists of  four  leaflets,  and  these  have  the  interesting  habit 
of  folding  together  at  night  or  while  rain  is  falling. 

Each  plant  bears  a  number  of  branches,  which  in  some 
varieties  lie  flat  upon  the  ground,  while  in  other  varieties 
the  branches  are  erect.  The  pod  contains  from  one  to 
three  or  sometimes  even  four  seeds. 


PEANUT 


465 


FIG.  201.  —  THE  LOWER  PART  OF  A  PEANUT  PLANT. 

Showing  roots,  root  tubercles,  and  nuts  or  seeds  borne  on  the  end  of 
needles,"  or  elongated  pistils. 
2u 


466 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


444.    Composition.  —  The   following  table   shows   that 
all  parts  of  the  peanut  plant  are  rich  in  nutritive  qualities  : 


PEANUT 

WATER 

PROTEIN 

FIBER 

NITROGEN- 
FREE 
EXTRACT 

FAT 

Peanut  with  hull      .     .    . 
Peanut  kernels    .... 
Peanut  hay 

% 

6.60 

7.85 
783 

% 
23.20 
29.47 
11.75 

% 

18.40 
4.29 
22  11 

% 

14.20 
14.27 
46  95 

% 
35.00 
49.20 

1  84 

Peanut  hulls 

1294 

7.22 

67  29 

1942 

2  68 

Peanut  meal  or  cake    .     . 

10.74 

52.49 

5.93 

27.26 

8.84 

A  crop  of  60  bushels  of  peanuts  per  acre,  together  with  one 
ton  of  hay,  has  been  found  to  contain  approximately  85  pounds 
of  nitrogen,  15  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  32  pounds  of  potash, 
and  46  pounds  of  lime.  Most  of  the  lime  and  potash  is  con- 
tained in  the  hay,  while  the  greater  part  of  the  phosphoric  acid 
and  more  than  half  of  the  nitrogen  are  found  in  the  nuts. 

445.  Soils.  —  A  sandy  or  sandy  loam  soil  is  preferred. 
Nuts  of  the  highest  market  quality,  that  is,  with  the 
brightest  shells,  are  produced  on  light-colored,  sandy  soil. 
Red  or  dark  soils,  especially  when  containing  much  clay, 
stain  the  hulls,  and  hence  reduce  the  market  price.  Such 
soils,  however,  are  fully  as  good  for  peanuts  that  are  to 
be  consumed  on  the  farm.  While  a  stiff  soil  is  usually 
avoided  for  peanuts,  —  partly  because  of  the  staining  of  the 
shells  and  partly  because  peanuts  cannot  be  grazed  by  live- 
stock on  such  soils  while  wet,  —  yet  these  heavier  soils  some- 
times make  larger  yields  of  nuts  than  do  very  sandy  fields. 

In  the  choice  of  soils  for  peanuts  it  must  be  constantly 
remembered  that  a  loose,  friable  condition  of  the  surface 
layer  is  necessary  in  order  that  the  "  pegs,"  from  which 
the  pods  will  develop,  may  easily  enter  the  soil. 


PEANUT  467 

446.  Liming  soils.  —  A  considerable  amount  of  lime  in 
the   soil  increases  the  yield.     However,   the  percentage 
of  lime  in  the  soils  of  the  eastern  peanut  region  is  low, 
so  that  this  element  is  usually  supplied  artificially.     The 
absence  of  lime  is  generally  believed  to  be  one  of  the  causes 
leading  to  a  large  proportion  of  "  pops,"  that  is,  shells 
without  nuts.     Potash  is  said  to  reduce  the  number  of 
"  pops."   Probably  one  of  the  good  effects  of  lime  is  its  well 
known  effect  of  making  available  the  potash  in  the  soil.   On 
soils  extremely  deficient  in  lime,  as  are  most  light-colored, 
sandy  soils,  an  application  of  lime  is  usually  advantageous. 
A  minimum  of  10  bushels  or  a  maximum  of  50  bushels 
of  slaked  lime  per  acre  may  be  used.     The  smaller  appli- 
cation repeated  at  frequent  intervals  is  preferable  to  larger 
application  once  every  four  or  five  years.     Where  lime  is 
used  special  care  must  be  taken  to  maintain  an  abundant 
supply  of  humus  in  the  soil.     Lime  is  best  applied  broad- 
cast and  harrowed  in,  but  when  very  small  amounts  are 
employed,  it  is  sometimes  placed  in  the  drill,  or  even 
drilled  on  top   of  the   ridge   after   the   seed  have  been 
planted. 

447.  Fertilizers.  —  Other  fertilizers  for  peanuts  should 
be   placed   in   the   drill,    though   some    farmers   in   Vir- 
ginia apply  a  few  hundred  pounds  of  land-plaster  per  acre 
after  the  plants  have  made  considerable  growth.     It  seems 
to  be  better  practice,  instead  of  using  plaster,  to  increase 
the  amount  of  acid  phosphate,  since  nearly  half  of  the 
weight  of  acid  phosphate  consists    of   land-plaster.     In 
either  form,  the  plaster  converts  a  part  of  the  potash  of 
the  soil  into  a  more  available  form. 

The  fertilizer  most  generally  needed  by  peanuts  is  a 


468  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 

mixture  of  acid  phosphate  and  some  form  of  potash,  such 
as  kainit  or  muriate  of  potash.  A  good  general  fertilizer 
is  at  least  200  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  and  50  pounds  of 
muriate  of  potash  per  acre. 

If  the  land  is  extremely  poor,  there  is  some  advantage  in  using 
a  small  amount  of  nitrogenous  fertilizer,  so  as  to  promote  the 
early  growth  of  the  plant  before  it  is  able  to  draw  its  nitrogen 
from  the  air.  For  this  purpose  about  40  pounds  of  nitrate  of 
soda  per  acre  may  be  placed  in  the  furrow  at  the  time  of  planting, 
or,  better  still,  applied  on  one  side  of  each  row  of  plants  at  the 
first  cultivation.  The  later  application  of  nitrate  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  not  stimulating  the  growth  of  weeds  and  grass  as 
early  in  the  season  as  would  be  the  case  if  it  were  applied  at  or 
before  planting. 

However,  for  the  greater  part  of  the  supply  of  nitrogen  re- 
liance must  be  placed  on  that  drawn  from  the  air  by  the  tubercles 
on  the  roots  of  the  peanut  plant. 

448.  Preparation  of  the  land.  —  The  first  step  in  pre- 
paring peanut  land  is  to  remove  any  coarse  litter,  such  as 
stalks  of  corn  or  cotton,  which  might  interfere  with  ger- 
mination and  cultivation.  The  land  should  be  plowed 
and  thoroughly  harrowed.  The  time  of  planting  depends 
on  the  locality,  the  soil,  and  the  nature  of  the  preceding 
crop.  Generally  it  is  well  to  plant  peanuts  after  some 
hoed  crop  which  has  been  well  cultivated,  such  as  cotton. 
Some  farmers  find  it  advantageous  to  plow  the  land  at  least 
a  month  before  planting.  This  gives  time  for  weed  seeds 
to  germinate.  This  crop  of  young  weeds  should  then  be 
destroyed  by  the  use  of  the  disk  harrow  or  other  suitable 
implement. 

Furrows  should  be  opened  at  regular  intervals  and  in 
these  the  fertilizer  drilled,  generally  by  the  use  of  a  machine. 


PEANUT  469 

A  cultivator  or  other  implement  frequently  follows  the 
fertilizer  distributor,  in  order  to  better  mix  the  fertilizer 
with  the  soil.  When  planting  on  ridges  is  to  be  practiced, 
the  land  is  next  ridged,  either  by  means  of  turn-plows, 
cultivators  with  suitable  points,  or  by  means  of  special 
implements.  These  ridges,  just  before  planting,  should 
be  partially  pulled  down,  and  flattened  by  the  use  of  a 
weeder  or  spike-toothed  harrow. 

449.  Method  of  planting.  —  On  this  low,  flattened  list 
or  ridge  the  seed  are  then  planted  either  by  means  of  a 
planter,  —  which   opens,   drops,    and   covers,   all   at   one 
time,  —  or  by  means  of  hand-planting  in  a  furrow  opened 
by  a  scooter  and  covered  by  the  use  of  a  double  foot  or 
other  suitable  device. 

On  stiff  lands  a  depth  of  1J  inches  suffices  early  in  the 
season.  The  depth  generally  preferred  is  about  2  inches. 
When  planting  is  done  at  a  late  date  or  on  dry  soil,  a  still 
greater  depth  is  advisable. 

On  very  dry  soils,  especially  when  planted  late,  no  ridges 
are  formed,  the  seed  being  planted  about  2  inches  below 
the  surface  level. 

450.  Distance   between  rows   and   between   plants.  — 
With  the  Spanish  peanuts  or  other  erect  varieties,  the 
distance  between  rows  is  usually  24  to  30  inches,  and  from 
30  to  36  inches  with  the  running  kind.     Spanish  peanuts 
on  good  land  may  advantageously  be  planted  as  close  as 
4  inches  apart  in  the  drill,  but  cultivation  is  more  econom- 
ically done  if  more  space  is  given,  usually  8  to  12  inches 
between  hills,  with  two  peas  in  a  place.     In  experiments 
at  the  Arkansas  Experiment  Station  the  yield  of  Spanish 
peanuts  decreased  as  the  space  between  rows  was  made 


470  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

wider  than  2  feet  and  as  the  distance  between  plants  was 
increased  above  6  inches. 

451.  Seed.  —  To  plant  an  acre  of  either  Spanish  or 
running  peanuts  rather  thickly,  requires  about  two  bushels 
of  unhulled  nuts,  or  about  half  a  bushel  of  hulled  peanuts. 

The  seed  intended  for  planting  should  be  harvested 
before  the  plants  are  killed  by  frost  and  so  stacked  and 
stored  as  to  avoid  heating.  Varieties  having  large  pods 
require  the  shelling  of  the  seed  peas,  but  shelling  is  not 
necessary  with  the  Spanish  variety.  The  latter  is  usually 


FIG.  202. — A  PEANUT  "POPPER." 
A  device  for  shelling  peanuts. 

simply  broken,  each  piece  being  planted  with  the  inclosing 
shell.  In  this  case,  some  growers  find  it  advantageous  to 
soak  the  Spanish  peanuts  for  a  few  hours  before  planting,  so 
as  to  hasten  germination.  Shelling  affords  a  more  nearly 
perfect  stand  and  more  rapid  germination,  thus  giving 
the  crop  an  opportunity  to  begin  growth  before  grass  and 
weeds  start. 

Shelling  of  seed  peanuts  should  usually  be  performed 
by  hand,  since  the  use  of  machines  for  this  purpose  some- 
times breaks  the  thin  coat  surrounding  the  nuts.  Any 
injury  to  this  thin  layer  is  apt  to  interfere  with  germina- 


PEANUT  471 

tion.  In  the  hand  shelling  of  peanuts  the  work  may  be 
hastened  and  the  fingers  spared  by  the  use  of  a  simple 
device  known  as  the  "  popper."  This  is  a  thin  piece  of 
white  oak  or  other  suitable  material  bent  into  the  shape 
of  a  pair  of  tongs  (Fig.  202).  While  the  seed  peas  are 
being  shelled,  defective  seed  should  be  separated  and 
rejected. 

452.  Breeding.  —  No  form  of  plant-breeding  has  been 
generally  applied  to  the  peanut.     However,  since  the  selec- 
tion of  seed  from  the  best  plants  largely  increased  the 
yield  of  other  crops,  a  similar  increase  is  to  be  expected 
by  the  process  of  saving  seed  from  the  best  single  plants 
of  peanuts  (Fig.  203). 

453.  Time  of  planting.  - —  The  time  of  planting  varies 
greatly  with  the  latitude.     In  Virginia  the  greater  part 
of  the  crop  is  planted  in  May,  and  this  is  the  preferred 
month  for  planting  the  running  varieties  throughout  most 
parts  of  the  cotton-belt.     However,  these  varieties  are 
often  planted  in  April  in  the  southern  part  of  the  United 
States.     The    Spanish    peanut    requires    less    than    four 
months  for  maturing  a  crop.     Hence,  this  kind  can  be 
planted  at  any  date  desired  after  cotton  comes  up,  and 
up  to  the  first  of  July.     Even  later  plantings  of  this  va- 
riety are  sometimes  made,  but  at  the  sacrifice  of  yield. 
Spanish  peanuts  can  be  planted  after  any  of  the  small 
grains  are  harvested ;   but  unless  the  season  be  especially 
favorable,  maximum  yields  are  not  to  be  expected  where 
grain  stubble  is  plowed  under  in  June,  because  of  the 
tendency  of  such  fields  to  dry  out  or  otherwise  get  into 
poor  mechanical  condition. 

454.  Tillage.  —  After  planting  and   before   the    plants 


FIG.  203.  —  A  FIELD  OF  SPANISH  PEANUTS  GROWN  FROM  SELECTED  SEED. 

472 


PEANUT  473 

appear  above  ground,  the  peanut  field  may  be  tilled  with 
a  weeder.  As  soon  as  the  line  of  plants  can  be  seen, 
tillage  begins  with  some  form  of  cultivator  equipped  with 
fine  teeth  or  with  scrapes.  After  the  young  plants  have 
attained  some  degree  of  toughness,  the  weeder  is  brought 
into  use  at  frequent  intervals.  It  is  best  run  diagonally 
across  the  rows.  By  this  means  much  of  the  young  grass 
along  the  line  of  the  drill  is  destroyed,  thus  saving  much 
work  with  the  hoe.  One  hoeing,  or,  if  necessary,  a  second 
one  is  given,  but  only  when  needed.  Grass  growing 
among  the  prostrate  branches  of  the  running  varieties 
should  be  pulled  by  hand ;  large  weeds  in  such  positions 
are  better  cut  off,  since  the  pulling  of  large  grass  or  weeds 
after  the  nuts  form,  disturbs  the  buried  nuts  and  does 
more  harm  than  good. 

The  cultivator  is  used  as  often  as  necessary.  The  first 
cultivation  may  be  rather  deep.  Unless  level  culture  is 
practiced,  it  is  customary  for  the  cultivator  to  throw  some 
earth  around  and  among  the  plants,  thus  making  a  low 
ridge  or  bed  of  loose  soil  in  which  the  "  pegs  "  may  become 
imbedded. 

455.  Rotation.  —  Peanuts  should  generally  follow  a 
crop  kept  clean  by  the  use  of  the  hoe.  Among  such  crops 
are  cotton  and  sweet  and  Irish  potatoes. 

When  the  vines  are  returned  to  the  land  and  evenly 
distributed,  or  when  the  crop  is  grazed  on  the  land,  the 
peanut  enriches  the  soil,  especially  in  nitrogen.  However, 
when  peanuts  are  grown  for  market,  both  the  nuts  and 
vines  are  usually  removed  from  the  land,  making  a  heavy 
draft  on  soil  fertility,  and  necessitating  a  judicious  rota- 
tion. On  some  fields  in  the  peanut  region  this  crop  is 


474  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

grown  without  due  attention  to  rotation.  The  result 
is  a  notable  decline  in  yield,  due  to  the  exhaustion  of  the 
supplies  of  humus,  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  and  lime, 
and  in  some  cases  to  the  occurrence  of  disease  or  insect 
injury. 

The  best  rotation  varies  with  a  number  of  conditions. 
Where  peanuts  constitute  the  main  sale  crop,  they  are 
often  rotated  with  corn.  An  improvement  would  be  the 
sowing  of  either  cowpeas  or  of  crimson  clover  among  the 
corn  rows.  Peanuts  can  also  be  rotated  with  small  grain, 
the  oats  or  wheat  being  followed  by  cowpeas  and  this  crop 
by  peanuts.  When  cotton  is  the  preceding  crop  and  when 
the  germs  of  cotton  wilt  are  not  present  in  the  soil  (para- 
graph 380),  crimson  clover  seed  should  usually  be  sown 
in  the  cotton  plants  in  September,  and  the  young  clover 
plants  can  then  be  plowed  under  for  fertilizer  the  next 
spring,  in  time  for  the  growth  of  a  crop  of  peanuts. 

456.  A  recommended  rotation.  —  A  suitable  rotation 
for  those  fields  in  the  southern  part  of  the  cotton  belt  in 
which  the  presence  of  cotton  wilt  prevents  the  frequent 
growing  of  cotton,  is  the  following :  — 

First  year  :  corn  with  Iron  cowpeas  between  the  rows. 

Second  year :  cotton. 

Third  year :  peanuts. 

Fourth  year  :  fall-sown  oats,  followed  by  Iron  cowpeas. 

From  such  a  rotation,  crimson  clover  is  omitted  because 
it  might  be  the  indirect  means  of  increasing  the  amount 
of  wilt  in  the  next  cotton  crop.  This  is  because  crimson 
clover  is  attacked  by  nematode  worms  (see  paragraph  385) ; 
but  the  peanut  is  exempt  from  this  injury,  and  hence  the 


Mil  1 1 


HUH 

« *  *  •  i  * 


CAROLINA 


til 


MM 


VIRGINIA      NO,    1. 


FIG.  204.  —  PODS  AND  PEAS  OF  THREE  VARIETIES  or  PEANUTS. 
475 


476  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

latter  constitutes  a  good  crop  to  grow  on  fields  where  the 
organisms  of  either  nematode  worms  or  cotton  wilt  are 
present. 

457.  Varieties.  —  There  are  but  few  varieties  of  pea- 
nuts grown  in  the  United  States.  The  most  important 
are  described  below  (Fig.  204). 

Virginia  Runner.  —  This  is  a  variety  having  long 
branches  flat  on  the  ground,  and  bearing  pods  throughout 
the  entire  length.  The  pods  are  of  light  color  and  usually 
two  or  sometimes  three  in  a  pod.  The  pods  do  not  adhere 
well  to  the  vines  in  digging.  The  weight  of  this  and  of 
other  large  varieties  is  twenty-two  pounds  per  bushel. 

Virginia  Bunch  is  an  erect  variety  bearing  its  fruits 
only  near  the  base  of  the  plant.  The  nuts  are  similar 
to  those  of  the  Virginia  Runner. 

The  North  Carolina,  sometimes  called  the  Wilmington 
and  sometimes  the  African,  has  spreading  prostrate  stems, 
and  the  plant  is  of  somewhat  smaller  size  than  the  Virginia 
Runner.  The  pods  and  peas  are  also  smaller  than  those 
of  the  Virginia  Runner,  but  larger  than  Spanish  peanuts. 
The  percentage  of  oil  is  high  as  compared  with  other 
American  varieties,  but  lower  than  that  of  peanuts  grown 
in  Africa.  The  weight  of  the  North  Carolina  variety  is 
twenty-eight  pounds  per  bushel. 

The  Spanish  is  the  earliest  variety  of  American  peanuts. 
The  branches  grow  upright,  and  the  pods  are  clustered 
around  the  base  of  the  plant  (Fig.  205).  Hence,  in  sandy 
soil  practically  all  of  the  nuts  adhere  to  the  vines  when 
the  latter  are  pulled,  after  being  loosened.  The  pods  are 
short  and  slender,  usually  containing  two  nuts.  The  hull 
lies  in  close  contact  with  the  nut,  so  that  moisture  is  quickly 


PEANUT 


477 


FIG.  205.  —  A  BUNCH  OF  SPANISH  PEANUTS. 


478  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

conveyed  to  the  latter ;  as  a  result,  Spanish  peanuts  sprout 
more  quickly,  if  left  in  the  land  after  maturing,  than  do 
varieties  with  larger  pods  and  more  space  between  nut 
and  shell.  Hence,  Spanish  peanuts  must  be  dug  or  used 
as  hog  feed  soon  after  ripening,  while  the  large-podded 
varieties  may  remain  sound  enough  for  hogs  to  eat  through- 
out the  first  half  of  the  winter. 

Spanish  peanuts  require  less  than  four  months  from 
planting  to  maturity,  or  at  least  a  month  less  than  most 
other  varieties.  Hence  they  may  be  planted  later.  They 
are  sometimes  planted  after  oats  are  harvested,  but  under 
these  conditions  the  yield  is  reduced.  The  latest  date 
for  planting  Spanish  peanuts  with  the  expectation  of  a 
fair  yield  is  about  July  1,  in  the  central  part  of  the  cotton- 
.belt.  Spanish  peanuts  can  be  grown  on  poorer  soil  and 
on  soil  with  less  lime  in  it  than  can  most  other  varieties. 

458.  Uses.  —  The  peanut  constitutes  an  important 
human  food.  It  is  eaten  roasted,  for  which  use  the  va- 
rieties having  large  pods  are  preferred.  The  shelled  peas 
are  extensively  used  in  confectionery,  and  to  this  use  the 
Spanish  and  the  smaller  peas  of  the  other  varieties  are 
largely  devoted.  In  Marseilles,  France,  and  in  other 
localities  in  Europe,  large  amounts  of  peanuts  from  Africa 
and  India  are  converted  into  oil  and  peanut  cake.  Peanut 
oil  commands  a  higher  market  price  than  cotton-seed  oil 
and  is  largely  used  as  a  substitute  for  olive  oil.  There 
is  need  for  further  investigation  to  determine  whether  it 
is  practicable  for  Southern  cotton  oil  mills  to  manufacture 
peanut  oil  from  some  of  the  African  peanuts,  rich  in  oil, 
which  could  doubtless  be  successfully  grown  in  the 
South. 


PEANUT  479 

Peanut  butter,  made  from  the  ground  peas  or  nuts, 
with  or  without  the  addition  of  oil,  is  a  palatable  and 
nutritious  article  of  human  food  and  is  rapidly  growing 
in  popularity. 

459.  The  peanut  and  its  by-products  as  food  for  live- 
stock. —  Outside  of  those  regions  in  which  the  peanut 
is  grown  as  a  sale  crop,  its  principal  use  is  as  a  food  for 
hogs,  the  hogs  doing  the  harvesting.  To  make  the  season 
in  which  peanuts  are  available  as  long  as  possible,  there 
should  be  a  succession  of  plantings  of  Spanish  peanuts  at 
intervals  of  a  few  weeks ;  this  succession  of  Spanish  pea- 
nuts should  be  planted  in  addition  to  the  necessary  acreage 
in  the  running  varieties,  the  latter  being  grown  largely 
with  a  view  to  use  in  December.  Hogs  make  satisfactory 
growth  on  peanuts  alone,  but  the  addition  of  a  small 
amount  of  corn  makes  the  gain  more  rapid  and  improves 
the  quality  of  the  meat  and  lard  produced. 

Hogs  fed  on  peanuts  make  very  soft  pork  and  lard  that  melts 
at  a  low  temperature.  Hence,  it  is  advisable  to  remove  pea- 
nuts from  the  ration  at  least  a  month  before  the  animals  are 
killed. 

ID  growing  peanuts  as  an  article  of  sale,  the  nuts  left  in  the 
field  and  the  immature  or  unmarketable  pods  may  be  used  in 
fattening  hogs. 

The  Spanish  and  other  varieties  of  peanuts  having  an  erect 
habit  of  growth  produce  from  1  to  2  tons  of  excellent  hay  per 
acre.  This  must  be  mowed  before  many  of  the  leaves  fall  or 
become  spotted.  The  field  may  then  be  grazed  by  cattle  and 
finally  hogs  turned  in  to  consume  the  nuts. 

Peanut  meal  is  quite  similar  in  composition  to  cotton-seed 
meal,  and  suitable  for  the  same  uses. 

In  some  regions  the  entire  plants  —  vines  with  attached  nuts 
—  are  fed  to  horses. 


4*0 


PEANUT  481 

460.  Harvesting.  —  The  principal  harvesting  season  is 
the  months  of  September  and  October.     Peanuts  for  mar- 
ket or  for  seed  should  be  dug  before  frost.     They  are 
ready  for  harvesting  as  soon  as  the  pods  about  the  base 
of  the  plant  show  a  tendency  to  shed,  or  easily  become 
detached  from  the  vine.     Harvesting  may  be  done  in  a 
variety  of  ways.     The  usual  method  is  to  remove  the 
moldboard  from  a  turn-plow  and  run  the  share  under  the 
row  on  each  side  at  a  sufficient  depth  not  to  sever  the  pods 
from  the  branches.     The  side  from  which  the  moldboard 
has  been  removed  is  kept  next  to  the  row. 

Sometimes  a  special  blade  is  attached  to  the  plow  in 
such  a  way  as  to  run  under  the  line  of  plants.  The  plants 
are  then  lifted  by  hand  or  by  means  of  forks  and  thrown 
into  small  piles  on  every  third  row.  They  are  stacked, 
usually  on  the  same  day  as  dug,  and  before  the  plants 
have  thoroughly  dried.  The  stacks  are  as  slender  as 
possible  and  only  about  five  feet  high  (Fig.  206).  They 
are  made  around  poles  seven  feet  long,  driven  securely 
into  the  ground.  The  tops  are  turned  outward  and 
the  nuts  inward,  so  as  to  protect  the  latter  from  rain, 
dew,  and  sunshine,  and  from  the  attacks  of  birds  and 
other  animals.  Before  making  the  stack,  a  few  short 
poles  are  placed  on  the  ground  so  as  to  keep  the  nuts 
from  resting  on  the  latter;  a  little  space  for  ventila- 
tion is  left  around  each  stack-pole.  The  stack  is  capped 
with  grass,  hay,  or  other  material  suitable  for  shedding 
water. 

461.  Yields  of  peanuts.  —  At  the  branch  Experiment 
Station  at  Newport,  Arkansas,  a  yield  of  172  bushels  per 
acre  was  made  by  planting  Spanish  peanuts  4  inches  apart 

2i 


482  SOUTH EEN  FIELD   CROPS 

in  drills  2  feet  apart.1  This  is  probably  the  largest  yield 
on  record.  A  yield  of  60  bushels  or  more  of  any  variety 
may  be  regarded  as  a  good  crop.  The  average  of  the 
entire  country  in  most  years  is  below  35  bushels  per  acre. 
462.  Enemies.  —  The  peanut  has  few  enemies  either 
among  insects  or  among  the  minute  organisms  usually 
concerned  in  the  diseases  of  plants. 

The  most  common  disoase  is  a  form  of  leaf-spot  (Cercospora 
per  sonata}.  The  symptoms  are  the  appearance  of  brownish 
spots  on  the  leaves.  This  disease  is  more  frequently  noted  on 
sour  or  poorly  drained  land.  If  it  appears  late  in  the  life  of  the 
plant,  it  will  often  be  practicable  to  mow  the  erect  varieties  for 
hay  before  the  disease  has  rendered  the  vines  unfit  for  this  use. 

In  a  few  localities,  especially  around  old  premises,  the  peanut 
plant  is  sometimes  killed  by  a  form  of  root  rot  (Fusarium) .  The 
symptoms  are  the  presence  of  a  mass  of  white  threads  on  the  stem 
just  below  the  surface,  together  with  the  appearance  of  minute 
round,  whitish,  or  brownish  bodies,  about  the  size  of  mustard 
seeds,  clustered  around  the  stem,  close  to  the  surface  of  the 
ground. 

Doubtless  rotation  of  crops,  keeping  off  of  the  infected  fields 
most  of  the  legumes  and  other  susceptible  crops,  is  the  best  means 
of  avoiding  injury  by  this  disease. 

LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

1.  Determine  the  weight  of  100  shelled  nuts  of  the  Spanish 
and  of  some  larger  variety. 

2.  Determine  the  percentage  of  hulls  in  the  unshelled  dry 
nuts  of  both  the  Spanish  and  some  larger  variety. 

3.  If  growing  peanut  plants  are  available,  make  a  drawing 
showing  where  the  "  pegs  "  or  "  needles  "  originate,  and  the 
enlargement  which  they  undergo  after  penetrating  the  soil. 

4.  The  principal  laboratory  work  to  accompany  this  chapter 

1  Ark.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  58. 


PEANUT  483 

should  be  the  actual  performance  or  observation  of  the  field 
operations  herein  mentioned. 

LITERATURE 

HANDY,  R.  B.     Peanuts  :   Culture  and  Uses.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr., 

Farmer's  Bui.  No.  25. 
BEATTIE,   R.  W.     Peanuts.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmer's  Bui. 

No.  356. 

NEWMAN,  C.  L.     Peanuts.     Ark.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  84. 
ROPER,  WILLIAM  N.     The  Peanut  and  its  Culture.    Petersburg, 

Virginia. 
CORBETT,  L.  C.    Peanuts.    Bailey's  Cyclo.  Agr.,  Vol.  2,  pp.  514- 

519. 


CHAPTER   XXIX 
SUGAR-CANE  —  SACCHARUM  OFFICINARUM 

SUGAR-CANE  is  one  of  the  family  of  the  grasses.  Like  all 
the  grasses,  sugar-cane  has  a  jointed  stem  with  a  leaf  origi- 
nating at  each  node.  The  leaves  are  arranged  in  two 
vertical  ranks,  and  are  borne  alternately  on  two  sides  of 
the  stalk.  The  plant  grows  to  a  height  of  8  to  12  feet,  or, 
in  tropical  countries,  to  a  greater  height. 

The  stem  is  large  and  upright,  except  when  bent  or 
reclined  by  wind  or  by  its  own  weight.  A  number  of 
stalks  usually  grow  together  in  a  cluster,  due  to  the  fact 
that  this  plant  throws  up  additional  stems  from  the  buds 
at  its  lower  nodes  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

463.  Duration.  —  Sugar-cane  is  perennial.  In  some 
tropical  countries  a  number  of  harvests  are  secured  from 
a  single  planting.  In  Louisiana  usually  only  two  or  three 
crops  are  grown  before  the  stubble  becomes  too  thin  to 
produce  profitable  yields.  In  the  pine-belt  east  of  Loui- 
siana and  north  of  the  latitude  of  Florida,  a  planting  of 
sugar-cane  usually  affords  but  a  single  crop,  annual  plant- 
ing being  necessary.  In  this  region  the  cane  is  usually 
cut  and  made  into  sirup  within  eight  months  after  the 
date  of  planting.  In  tropical  countries,  the  plants  are 
often  permitted  to  grow  for  fourteen  months  or  more 
before  being  harvested, 

484 


SUGAR-CANE  485 

464.  Leaves.  —  The  leaves  of  sugar-cane  are  broad  and 
long,  sometimes  reaching  a  length  of  three  feet.     In  some 
varieties  minute  prickles  occur  on  the  leaves,  making  the 
harvesting  of  the  crop  disagreeable.     The  leaves  have  a 
central  midrib,  which  gives  a  moderate  degree  of  stiffness 
to  the  lower  part  of  the  leaf -blade. 

The  leaf  of  the  sugar-cane,  like  that  of  corn,  has  special 
cells  which,  when  the  supply  of  water  is  not  sufficient, 
roll  it  together,  thus  reducing  the  loss  of  moisture.  The 
leaf-sheath,  or  part  that  folds  around  the  stem,  serves 
to  protect  the  bud,  or  eye,  which  it  incloses.  As  the  plant 
matures,  the  leaves  unclasp  from  the  stem  and  hang  loosely 
or  fall.  The  falling  of  any  leaf  is  regarded  as  an  indication 
of  the  maturity  of  the  internode-next  below  this  leaf. 

In  the  cells  of  the  leaves  the  green  coloring  matter 
during  daylight  manufactures  starch  from  the  carbonic 
acid  gas  of  the  air  and  the  water  brought  from  the  roots. 
This  starch  is  then  changed  and  conveyed  to  all  parts  of 
the  plant,  a  large  part  of  it  being  finally  deposited  in  the 
pith  cells  of  the  stem  in  the  form  of  sugar.  Thus,  sugar, 
the  valuable  product  of  cane,  is  made  up  almost  entirely 
of  water  and  of  a  gas  occurring  in  abundance  in  the  air  ; 
if  only  sugar  were  removed  from  the  land  there  would  be 
practically  no  exhaustion  of  the  plant-food  by  the  growing 
of  sugar-cane. 

465.  Roots.  —  A  small  part  of  the  main  stem  of  cane 
is  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  connected  below  either 
with  the  cane  that  was  planted  or  with  another  cane, 
from  one  bud  of  which  it  grew.     The  nodes,  and  hence 
the  buds,  on  this  underground  part  of  the  stem  are  very 
close  together,  making  it  possible  for  a  number  of  stems 


486 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


to  spring  up  in  a  cluster  or  stool  as  the  result  of  the  growth 
of  these  underground  buds  into  suckers,  or  young  canes. 
In  a  band  around  the  stalk  at  each  node  are  a  number  of 
nearly  transparent  dots.  From  these  dots  spring  true 
roots  when  this  joint  is  kept  moist  by 
contact  with  the  soil.  The  roots  are 
fibrous  and  usually  they  do  not  pene- 
trate to  great  depth, 

466.  The  stem.  —  The  part  most 
valued  is  the  stem,  from  which  sugar 
and  sirup  are  manufactured.  The 
stem  is  large  and  cylindrical,  and  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  internodes  of  vari- 
able length,  separated  by  joints,  or 
nodes  (Fig.  207).  The  internodes 
(often  popularly  called  "  joints  ")  are 
short  at  the  base  and  longer  toward 
the  middle  or  upper  part  of  the  stalk. 
The  length  of  internodes  varies  greatly 
with  different  varieties  and  is  de- 
creased by  drought,  or  by  other  con- 
dition unfavorable  to  growth.  The 
FIG.  207. — PART  OF  A  rind  or  outer  portion  of  the  stalk  con- 
sists chiefly  of  strong  fibrous  tissue, 
giving  strength  and  hardness  to  the 
temodes ;  x,  dots  where  stem.  The  rind,  and  hence  the  stalk, 

roots  may  originate.  .g  Q£  varioug  colorg>  depending  on  the 

variety.  Among  the  most  common  colors  are  purple 
(or  reddish),  striped  purple  and  white,  and  green.  Yellow, 
white,  brown,  and  other  colors  also  occur,  especially  in 
varieties  grown  in  tropical  countries. 


STEM  OF  SUGAR-CANE. 


SUGAR-CANE 


487 


467.  Structure  of  the  stem.  —  On  cutting  across  a  stalk 
of  cane,  one  finds  the  greater  part  of  the  space  within  the 
rind  occupied  by  white  pith  cells.  It  is  within  these 


FIG.  208.  —  CROSS  SECTION  OF  PART  OF  A  STEM  OF  SUGAR-CANE. 

The  dark  spots  inclosing  smaller  white  spots  are  the  bundles  which 
contain  the  tubes  and  vessels  through  which  liquids  circulate  ;  the  greater 
part  of  this  section  consists  of  pith  cells.  Greatly  enlarged. 

white  pith  cells  that  the  sugar  is  contained.  The  enormous 
pressure  of  a  mill  is  required  to  expel  the  juice  in  which 
the  sugar  is  dissolved. 


488 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


At  intervals  among  these  pith  cells  may  be  found  strands  of 
tougher  tissue  running  parallel  to  the  length  of  the  stalk  (Fig. 
208).  These  tough,  strong  strands  are  the  bundles  of  fibrous 
tissue  that  serve  for  the  circulation  of  liquids  within  the  plant. 
Each  bundle  (Fig.  209)  contains  (1)  several  vessels,  that  is,  organs 


FIG.  209.  —  CROSS  SECTION  THROUGH  A  BUNDLE  FROM  THE  STEM  OF 
SUGAR-CANE. 

V,  vessels  for  upward  current ;  S,  sieve  tubes  for  the  descending  sap  ; 
P,  pith  cells  containing  sugar.     Greatly  enlarged. 


for  the  carrying  of  water  and  dissolved  plant-food  from  the  soil 
upward  to  the  leaves ;  (2)  a  number  of  smaller  carriers,  called 
sieve  tubes,  through  which  the  digested  sap  is  returned  from  the 
leaves  to  all  the  other  parts  of  the  plant. 


SUGAR-CANE  489 

The  bundles  are  most  numerous  just  beneath  and  within 
the  rind,  where  they  serve  to  give  strength  and  stiffness  to  the 
stem.  At  the  joints  or  nodes  the  bundles  branch  and  inter- 
mingle, a  part  being  continued  into  the  leaves,  and  a  part  enter- 
ing the  nsxt  upper  internode.  The  larger  the  amount  of  fiber,  the 
smaller  is  the  amount  of  sugar,  and  the  greater  the  difficulty  of 
expelling  the  juice.  Therefore,  canes  with  short  internodes, 
and  hence  consisting  largely  of  the  fiber  that  constitutes  the  hard 
nodes,  are  less  desirable  than  those  with  long  internodes.  The 
internodes  are  longer  where  all  conditions  are  favorable  to  a 
luxuriant  growth ;  for  example,  abundance  of  plant-food,  an 
ample  supply  of  moisture,  and  judicious  cultivation. 

468.  The  buds  or  eyes.  —  At  each  node  or  joint  on  the 
stem  is  borne  a  bud.     This  is  the  part  of  the  plant  from 
which  the  next  crop  must  grow,  just  as  the  eye  of  the  Irish 
potato  serves  instead  of  seed  to  perpetuate  that  plant. 
The  buds  occur  alternately  on  opposite  sides  of  the  stem. 
A  bud  is  about  the  size  of  half  of  a  pea.     It  is  closely 
enfolded  and  protected  by  the  leaf-sheath.     Moreover, 
each  bud  consists  of  the  inner  part,  which  is  capable  of 
growth,  and  of  several  outer  protecting  coats. 

The  aim  in  harvesting  before  frost  that  part  of  the  cane 
crop  intended  for  planting  and  the  banking  or  windrow- 
ing  of  cane  in  winter  is  to  protect  the  buds  from  freezing. 
The  life  of  the  bud  is  easily  destroyed  by  freezing  weather, 
especially  if  moisture  has  collected  under  the  leaf-sheath 
and  around  the  bud. 

469.  Method   of  propagation.  —  For   commercial   pur- 
poses, the  only  method  of  propagating  sugar-cane  consists 
in  planting  the  stalks  or  sections  of  stalks  on  which  are 
borne  the  eyes.     Stimulated  by  the  moisture  and  heat  of 
the  soil,  the  bud  swells  and  grows  into  a  sucker,  or  young 


490  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

cane.  This  develops  a  stalk,  with  buds  at  each  node. 
The  growth  of  clusters  of  stalks  results  from  the 
growth  of  several  of  the  buds  on  the  base  of  the  young 
plant,  usually  from  those  nodes  located  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  Thus,  a  cluster  or  stool  consists  of  stalks 
of  various  sizes  and  ages,  only  one  of  which  grew  from 
the  planted  bud,  but  all  indirectly  tracing  back  to  that 
bud.  The  percentage  of  the  eyes  of  planted  cane  capable 
of  growth  varies  greatly  with  different  varieties,  and  is  not 
the  same  for  the  buds  growing  on  the  upper  and  lower 
part  of  the  stalk.  Care  in  planting  results  in  an  increase 
in  the  number  of  buds  that  grow,  thus  affording  a  thicker 
stand.  The  young  sucker  draws  its  nourishment  from 
the  mother  stalk  (planted  cane  or  older  growing  plant) 
until  its  own  roots  have  sufficiently  developed  to  supply  it 
with  the  necessary  food  and  moisture. 

470.  Propagation  of  sugar-cane  from  seed.  —  In  trop- 
ical countries,  some  varieties  of  sugar-cane  "  arrow/' 
or  produce  from  the  top  of  the  stem,  when  a  little  more 
than  a  year  old,  a  flower  stalk,  on  the  top  of  which  is  borne 
a  silky  head  consisting  of  innumerable  very  small  flowers. 
Each  flower  when  mature  resembles  a  small,  chaffy  grass 
seed.  Until  the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  it 
was  thought  that  no  seed  reached  such  a  degree  of  develop- 
ment as  to  be  capable  of  germination  and  growth.  How- 
ever, scientists  have  now  learned  methods  by  which  a  very 
small  proportion  of  the  seeds  of  sugar-cane  produced  in 
tropical  countries  may  be  made  to  grow.  The  plants  pro- 
duced by  seed  grow  very  slowly,  requiring  several  years 
to  attain  the  size  that  is  ordinarily  reached  in  a  few  months 
by  cane  propagated  from  buds. 


SUGAR-CANE  49\ 

471.  Improvement  of  cane.  —  It  has  been  proved  that 
sugar-canes  propagated  from  buds  differ  among  themselves 
in  the  percentage  of  sugar  and  in  other  useful  qualities. 
It  has  also  been  found  that  the  selection  for  planting  pur- 
poses of  canes  from  clumps  or  stools  the  stalks  of  which 
are  rich  in  sugar,  results  in  an  improvement  in  the  quality 
of  the  next  crop.     By  this  mode  of  selecting  good  stalks, 
some  improvement  can  be  made  in  sugar-cane. 

An  experiment  conducted  at  the  Louisiana  Sugar  Experiment 
Station  through  six  generations  showed  a  decrease  in  yield  from 
the  repeated  planting  of  small  canes.  Taking  the  average  for 
all  years  the  continuous  planting  of  large  canes  produced  an 
average  crop  of  30  tons  of  cane  per  acre.  The  repeated  planting 
of  medium-sized  canes  yielded  29.85  tons;  and  the  continuous 
planting  of  small  canes  afforded  an  average  crop  of  only  25.95 
tons  of  cane  per  acre.  The  decrease  from  using  small  seed  canes 
was  greater  in  the  first  crop,  or  "  plant  cane,"  than  in  the  second 
crop,  or  "  stubble  cane." 

However,  it  is  a  general  rule  that  plants  grown  from 
seed  show  greater  differences  among  themselves  than  do 
the  same  kinds  of  plants  when  propagated  from  buds. 
Taking  advantage  of  this,  selection  is  made  of  those  seed- 
ling canes  which  show  especially  desirable  qualities,  and 
these  strains  are  thereafter  propagated  by  planting  the 
canes  in  the  usual  way,  thus  retaining  and  perpetuating 
the  quality  desired.  The  planting  of  true  seed  is  now  the 
first  step  in  the  usual  method  of  bringing  into  existence 
new  varieties  of  sugar-cane. 

COMPOSITION 

472.  Proportion  of  parts  of  the  cane.  —  At  the  Louisi- 
ana Sugar  Station,  for  each  ton  of  stripped  cane  of  the 


492  ,.    SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

Red  or  Purple  variety  there  was  found  about  three  quar- 
ters of  a  ton  of  tops,  leaves,  and  roots.  Nearly  90  per 
cent  of  the  weight  of  the  stripped  cane  may  consist  of 
juice.  However,  the  small  mills  having  only  three  rollers 
usually  extract  only  about  half  of  the  total  juice. 

The  large  and  powerful  mills  connected  with  sugar-houses 
extract  from  75  to  80  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  cane  as  juice. 

A  ton  of  stripped  cane  is  expected  to  yield  between  150  and 
180  pounds  of  sugar.  Exact  data  for  the  yield  of  sirup  are  not 
abundant,  but  the  output  may  be  roughly  estimated  at  12  to 
15  gallons  per  ton  of  stripped  cane  crushed  in  small,  poor  mills, 
or  as  much  as  22  gallons  in  good  mills  in  Louisiana. 

473.  Relative   composition  of  sugar-cane  in  the  sugar- 
belt  and  in  the  coastal  pine-belt.  —  The  sandy  uplands  of 
the  coastal  pine-belt  of  the  United  States  afford  a  cane  fully 
as  rich  in  sucrose,  or  crystallizable  sugar,  as  the  canes  of 
Louisiana,  the  sucrose  usually  ranging  from  10.50  to  14 
per  cent.     But  the  shorter  season  in  the  pine-belt  makes  the 
percentage  of  glucose,  or  non-crystallizable  sugar,  greater 
here  than  in  Louisiana.     This  higher  glucose  content  would 
be  a  great  disadvantage  in  manufacturing  sugar,  since  glu- 
cose not  only  fails  to  crystallize,  but  its  presence  also  causes 
some  of  the  sucrose  to  fail  to  make  sugar. 

On  the  other  hand,  this  high  percentage  of  glucose  is  a 
positive  advantage  in  sirup  making,  because  the  greater 
the  amount  of  this  substance  the  smaller  is  the  tendency 
for  the  sirup  to  crystallize,  or  to  turn  to  sugar,  —  a  change 
that  is  extremely  undesirable. 

474.  Removal  of  plant-food  from  the  land.  —  At  the 
Louisiana  Sugar  Station  (Bui.  No.  59)  the  following  facts 
were  learned  as  to  the  amount  of  plant-food  removed  by 


SUGAR-CANE 


*493 


a  ton  of  stripped  Red  or  Purple  cane  with  the  accompanying 
waste  parts :  — 


POUNDS  PER  TON  OF  STRIPPED 
CANE 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric 
Acid 

Potash 

In  1  ton  of  stripped  canes    . 
In  leaves  and  tops  (1376  Ib.)     .     . 

1.08 
1.73 

1.04 
0.49 

1.22 
1.21 

Total  in  cane,  leaves,  and  tops  . 

2.81 

1.53 

2.43 

In  Louisiana,  the  tops  and  leaves  are  usually  burned  on  the 
land,  thus  saving  their  quota  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  but 
losing  all  of  the  nitrogen.  Under  these  conditions  the  loss  of 
plant-food  represented  by  a  crop  of  25  tons  per  acre  of  stripped 
cane  would  be 

Nitrogen 61  pounds 

Phosphoric  acid 26  pounds 

Potash 30  pounds 

When  the  leaves  and  tops  are  burned,  sugar-cane  is  an  exhaust- 
ing crop.  It  makes  a  demand  for  a  large  porportion  of  nitrogen 
in  the  fertilizer,  or  else  for  much  nitrogen  supplied  by  growing 
a  preceding  crop  of  cowpeas  or  velvet  beans.  Some  analyses  of 
cane  grown  in  Hawaii  and  in  foreign  countries  show  a  larger 
draft  on  the  fertility  of  the  soil  than  is  indicated  by  the  analyses 
of  American  cane. 

SOILS  AND  FERTILIZERS 

475.  Soils.  —  The  sugar-cane  bears  a  large  number 
of  broad  leaves  and  presents  a  very  extensive  surface  en- 
gaged in  transpiring  water.  Hence,  the  most  important 
requirement  in  a  soil  for  sugar-cane  is  that  it  shall  afford 
a  generous  supply  of  moisture  throughout  the  growing 


494  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

season.  W.  C.  Stubbs  says  that  the  best  soil  for  sugar- 
cane should  be  capable  of  holding  25  per  cent  of  its  weight 
of  moisture. 

In  a  hilly  country  alluvial  bottoms  make  the  best  soil 
for  sugar-cane,  provided  they  are  well  drained,  and  the  soil 
somewhat  sandy,  but  fertile.  Especially  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  region  where  sugar-cane  is  grown,  a  stiff  or 
poorly  drained  soil  is  unsuitable  for  this  plant.  On  such 
soils,  the  yield  of  cane  and  the  quality  of  the  sirup  are 
unsatisfactory. 

Soils  for  sugar-cane  should  be  fertile,  and  well  supplied 
with  vegetable  matter. 

Stubbs  states  that  the  soils  of  the  sugar-belt  of  Louisiana  con- 
tain on  an  average 

Lime 0.5  per  cent 

Potash 0.4  per  cent 

Phosphoric  acid 0.1  per  cent 

He  calculates  that  if  the  entire  growth  were  removed  from  the 
land,  a  soil  of  this  composition  contains  enough  of  the  above 
fertilizer  constituents  for  the  following  number  of  crops,  each  of 
25  tons  of  cane,  besides  tops  and  leaves :  — 

Nitrogen  for 70  crops 

Phosphoric  acid  for       .     .     .     .     .     .  150  crops 

Potash  for       .     ....     ......  333  crops 

Lime  for 1250  crops 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  yield  would  decline  to  an  unprofitable 
amount  long  before  any  one  form  of  plant-food  would  be  com- 
pletely exhausted. 

476.  Uplands  for  cane.  —  Most  of  the  uplands  on  which 
sugar-cane  is  sometimes  grown  east  of  the  Mississippi 
River  are  much  more  sandy,  and  hence  much  more  de- 


SUGAtt-CANfi  495 

ficient  in  plant-food,  than  the  soils  of  the  sugar-belt  of 
Louisiana.  Therefore,  on  such  upland  the  yield  of  cane 
per  acre  is  usually  lighter.  However,  there  is  partial  com- 
pensation in  the  fact  that  cane  grown  on  the  pine  lands 
is  ordinarily  richer  in  total  sugars  than  cane  grown  on 
the  alluvial  lands  in  Louisiana. 

477.  Fertilizers.  —  Under  the  system  generally  prac- 
ticed in  Louisiana,  the  tops  and  leaves  are  annually  burned 
on  the  field,  thus  returning  to  the  soil  a  part  of  the  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash,  but  robbing  the  soil  of  practically 
all  of  the  nitrogen  contained  in  the  above-ground  part 
of  the  plant.  .  Therefore,  the  principal  fertilizer  constituent 
needed  is  nitrogen.  Experiments  at  the  Louisiana  Sugar 
Station  have  indicated  that  as  much  as  48  pounds  of  nitro- 
gen per  acre  can  be  applied  with  profit  in  the  form-  of  com- 
mercial fertilizers.  This  amount  is  contained  in  about  340 
pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  or  in  larger  amounts  of  cotton- 
seed meal,  dried  blood,  or  tankage.  An  application  of  36 
pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  per  acre  was  found  to  be  suffi- 
cient for  Louisiana  soils.  This  amount  is  contained  in 
about  250  pounds  of  acid  phosphate.  Louisiana  experi- 
ments showed  that  cane  grown  on  the  soils  of  the  sugar- 
belt  needed  but  little,  if  any,  potash.  No  fertilizer  was 
found  to  influence  notably  the  percentage  of  sugar  in  the 
juice,  when  the  fertilizer  was  used  in  moderation  on  rich 
alluvial  soils. 

Part  of  the  commercial  fertilizer  is  advantageously  ap- 
plied before  the  planting  of  the  cane,  and  a  part  may  be 
reserved  for  application  soon  after  growth  begins.  If 
nitrogenous  fertilizer  is  applied  too  late  in  the  summer,  it 
delays  the  ripening  of  the  cane,  and  hence  reduces  the  yield 


496  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 

of  sugar,  or  injures  the  quality  of  sirup.     Phosphates  tend 
to  hasten  the  ripening  of  cane,  as  also  of  other  plants. 

478.  Source   of   nitrogen.  —  The  demands  for  a  large 
amount  of  nitrogen  are  met  by  the  planters  of  Louisiana  by 
plowing  under,  every  third  or  fourth  year,  a  luxuriant 
growth  of  cowpeas,  usually  grown  in  the  corn  in  rotation 
with  sugar-cane.     In  the  pine-belt  east  of  the  Mississippi 
River,   nitrogen  should   be   supplied  by   plowing  under, 
the  year  before  planting  cane,  a  luxuriant  growth  of  vel- 
vet beans  or  of  the  Iron  variety  of  cowpeas. 

479.  Fertilizer  experiments  with  cane  in  the  pine-belt.  — 
An  extensive  series  of  fertilizer  experiments  was  conducted 
for  two  years  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture on  sandy  pine  land  in  the  southern  part  of  Georgia. 

This  field  had  been  in  cultivation  for  a  number  of  years. 
When  cane  was  not  preceded  by  a  soil-improving  crop,  the 
results  were  as  follows :  — 

(1)  The  fertilizer  formula  that  can  be  recommended  as  the 
result  of  these  tests  consists  of 

600  pounds  high-grade  acid  phosphate, 
100  pounds  cotton-seed  meal, 
300  pounds  nitrate  of  soda, 
100  pounds  sulfate  or  muriate  of  potash, 
1100  pounds,  total  per  acre. 

Such  a  fertilizer  would  contain  about  86  pounds  of  available 
phosphoric  acid,  50  pounds  of  nitrogen,  and  50  pounds  of  potash, 
and  would  analyze  approximately  as  follows  :  — 

8.0  per  cent  of  available  phosphoric  acid, 
4.5  per  cent  of  nitrogen, 
4.5  per  cent  of  potash. 

In  these  tests  1200  pounds,  and  even  2000  pounds,  of  a  com- 
plete fertilizer  was  more  profitable  than  800  pounds  on  sandy 


SUGAR-CANE  497 

soil  not  previously  improved.  However,  800  pounds  was  suffi- 
cient on  a  similar  soil  where  the  entire  growth  of  velvet  beans 
had  been  plowed  under  a  few  months  before  planting  the  cane. 

(2)  These  quantities  of  fertilizer  were  found  more  effective 
when  divided  into  two  applications,  one  before  planting  and  one 
late  in  May,  than  when  all  the  fertilizer  was  used  at  the  time  of 
planting. 

(3)  As  a  source  of  nitrogen,  nitrate  of  soda  was  superior  to 
3otton-seed  meal ;    the  nitrogen  in  cotton-seed  meal  was  more 
effective  and  profitable  than  an  equal  weight  of  nitrogen  in  the 
form  of  cotton  seed. 

(4)  For  land  where  a  crop  of  velvet  beans  had  been  plowed 
under,  the  results  justified  the  recommendation  of  an  applica- 
tion of 

1100  pounds  of  high-grade  acid  phosphate, 

100  pounds  nitrate  of  soda, 

100  pounds  muriate  of  potash, 
1300  pounds,  total  per  acre. 

This  mixture  would  analyze  about 

11.5  per  cent  available  phosphoric  acid, 
1.1  per  cent  nitrogen, 
4.0  per  cent  potash. 

480.  Forms  of  plant-food  for  sugar-cane.  —  It  is  a 
common  practice  among  the  farmers  of  the  cotton-belt 
who  grow  cane  on  a  small  scale,  to  fertilize  it  with  25  to 
60  bushels  of  cotton  seed  per  acre  at  the  time  of  planting, 
in  addition  to  some  commercial  fertilizer.  At  prices 
of  cotton  seed  prevailing  in  recent  years,  the  necessary 
nitrogen  can  be  supplied  more  economically  in  the  form 
of  commercial  fertilizer,  and  still  more  economically  by 
plowing  under  a  preceding  crop  of  cowpeas,  velvet  beans, 
or  other  soil-improving  plant.  The  use  of  much  stable 
manure,  while  not  unusual,  is  apt  to  give  the  sirup  a  dark 
color  and  inferior  flavor. 

2K 


498  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

For  plants  like  sugar-cane,  in  which  a  high  quality  of 
product  is  important,  it  is  usually  regarded  as  better  to 
employ  sulfate  of  potash  than  muriate  of  potash  or  kainit. 
However,  this  point  needs  further  investigation. 

481.  Summary   regarding   fertilization    of    cane.  —  On 
soil  not  previously  enriched,  sugar-cane  requires  a  fertilizer 
rich  in  nitrogen.     Potash  is  needed  on  the  sandier  lands, 
but  apparently  not  on  the  rich  alluvial  soils  of  Louisiana. 
Phosphoric  acid  should  generally  be  supplied,  but   acid 
phosphate  need  not  constitute  so  large  a  proportion  of  the 
fertilizer  for  cane  as  for  cotton. 

CULTURAL  METHODS 

482.  Propagating  material.  —  Sugar-cane  is  propagated 
by  planting  the  stripped  stalk,  from  the  buds  or  eyes  of 
which  grow  suckers.     In  the  sugar-belt  the  stubble  of  cane 
lives  through  the  winter,  so  that  there  cane  is  usually 
grown  two  or  three  years  in  succession  from  a  single  plant- 
ing.    In  the  tropics  one  planting  serves  for  many  years. 

In  the  greater  part  of  the  American  sirup-belt,  the  stub- 
ble is  so  often  killed  that  a  good  stand  from  this  source 
is  not  expected.  Yet  at  least  as  far  north  as  Montgomery, 
Alabama,  a  small  portion  of  the  stubble  lives  through 
the  winter,  and  this  amount  can  be  increased  by  plowing 
two  furrows  over  the  stubble  before  killing  frosts  occur 
in  the  fall.  In  this  region  the  plants  grown  from  stubble 
cane  are  usually  small  and  short-jointed.  Hence,  stubble 
cane  here  is  usually  not  ground,  but  used  as  seed  material 
for  the  next  crop. 

483.  Preparation  of  the  land  in  Louisiana.  —  A  crop 
of  cowpeas  grown  with  corn  is  plowed  under  with  four-, 


SUGAR-CANE  499 

six-,  or  eight-horse  plows  in  August  or  September.  Since 
the  cane  fields  are  flat  and  wet,  drainage  is  here  a  most 
important  matter.  To  improve  the  drainage,  the  land 
is  thrown  into  high  beds  early  in  the  fall,  and  about  a 
month  after  the  land  was  first  plowed.  These  beds  are 
usually  5  to  7  feet  wide.  Plowing  is  deep.  Water-fur- 
rows are  opened  with  a  double  moldboard  plow,  as  an 
additional  step  in  draining  the  land. 

Throughout  the  season  these  beds  are  kept  high  and  the 
water-furrows  kept  open.  To  better  facilitate  drainage, 
"  quarter  drains  "  are  run  across  the  rows  at  suitable 
intervals  at  a  depth  of  about  six  inches  below  the  level 
of  the  water-furrows.  These  "  quarter  drains  "  empty 
into  narrow,  deep  ditches,  which  are  about  100  or  125 
feet  apart  and  parallel  to  the  rows  of  cane.  Tile  drains 
are  in  many  respects  preferable  to  open  ditches,  but  in 
the  sugar-belt  they  are  liable  to  become  stopped  by  sedi- 
ment, deposited  when  water  is  backed  up  in  them.  . 

484.  Planting  in  Louisiana.  —  In  the  top  of  each  bed 
a  furrow  is  opened  with  a  double  moldboard  plow,  the 
bottom  of  which  should  not  be  as  deep  as  the  water-furrow. 
In  this  newly  opened  trench  is  planted  a  double  row  of 
cane.  The  amount  of  " seed"  required  by  this  method  of 
planting  is  about  four  tons  per  acre.  The  cane  is  then 
covered  by  the  use  of  a  disk  cultivator.  Fall-planted  cane 
is  covered  with  a  considerable  depth  of  earth  as  a  protec- 
tion from  cold  in  winter. 

In  Louisiana,  planting  begins  as  early  in  the  fall  as  the 
cane  reaches  sufficient  maturity  for  the  buds  to  germinate. 
It  continues  at  least  until  the  grinding  season  begins  in 
November,  when  the  laborers  and  teams  are  needed  for 


500 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


the  cutting  and  hauling  of  the  crop.  Whatever  areas  are 
not  planted  in  the  fall  or  early  winter  are  planted  in  Feb- 
ruary or  March,  using  cane  that  has  been  protected 
throughout  the  winter  in  windrows. 

Fall  planting  is  usually  considered  better  than  spring 
planting,  the  former  affording  an  earlier  growth  and  a 


FIG.  210.  —  ONE  FORM  or  CANE  LOADER. 

larger  harvest.  In  Louisiana  the  entire  uncut  stalk  is 
used  for  seed.  In  some  warm  countries  the  tops  are 
planted  as  soon  as  cut,  thus  utilizing  for  planting  that  part 
of  the  plant  which  is  of  least  value  for  sugar-making. 

485.  Planting  in  the  pine-belt.  —  The  land  is  plowed 
into  beds  5  or  6  feet  wide.  In  the  water-furrow  is  strewn 
commercial  fertilizer,  or  frequently  25  to  50  bushels  of 


SUGAR-CANE  501 

cotton  seed  per  acre.  Cotton  seed  is  usually  so  high  in 
price  that  other  nitrogenous  fertilizers  may  be  profitably 
substituted  for  it.  When  cotton  seed  is  used,  it  should 
be  supplemented  by  acid  phosphate,  or  phosphate  and 
potash,  mixed  in  the  furrow  with  the  seed.  Where  much 
fertilizer  is  used,  a  furrow  should  be  made  through  it,  so 
as  to  mix  it  with  the  soil,  thus  preventing  the  eyes  of  the 
cane  from  coming  into  immediate  contact  with  the  ferti- 
lizer ;  this  is  because  the  eyes  or  buds  may  be  killed  by  con- 
tact with  certain  fertilizers.  A  single  line  of  cane,  the 
ends  of  the  stalks  slightly  overlapping,  is  then  planted 
in  the  water-furrow.  The  cane  is  covered  and  a  list  or 
bed  formed  above  it.  This  covers  the  cane  so  deeply  that 
it  is  desirable  to  remove  a  part  of  the  soil  before  the  young 
plants  come  up.  This  is  best  done  by  running  a  spike- 
tooth  harrow  on  the  rows  and  parallel  with  them.  This 
removes  the  excess  of  soil,  kills  sprouting  weeds,  and,  by 
retaining  moisture  below  the  layer  of  loosened  soil,  causes 
an  increased  number  of  eyes  on  the  planted  cane  to  grow. 

Planting  is  done  chiefly  in  the  first  half  of  March,  but 
in  parts  of  Florida,  fall  planting  is  sometimes  practiced. 

486.  Tillage.  —  In  Louisiana  in  the  spring,  a  part  of  the 
soil  is  removed  with  the  hoe  from  above  the  fall-planted 
cane  and  the  row  " barred  off"  and  fertilized.  Then 
the  soil  is  thrown  toward  the  rows.  Subsequent  tillage, 
is  effected  chiefly  by  the  u^e  of  a  disk  cultivator,  supple- 
mented by  the  use  of  some  other  suitable  implement  in 
the  middles,  or  water-furrows,  which  must  be  kept  open 
continuously  to  afford  drainage. 

In  the  sandy  lands,  the  more  common  implements  of 
tillage  are  the  scrape  or  sweep  and  various  styles  of  one- 


502  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

horse  cultivators.  Here  there  is  no  need  to  use  the  hoe 
to  remove  the  surplus  soil,  for  on  sandy  land  this  can  be 
done  with  a  harrow  before  the  young  plants  appear.  Fre- 
quent cultivations  and  occasional  hoeings  are  given  up  to 
the  time  when  the  cane  affords  shade  enough  to  keep  down 
weeds  and  grass.  After  the  first  one  or  two  cultivations, 
the  depth  should  be  shallow.  On  well-drained  soils  in  the 
pine-belt,  there  is  not  the  same  necessity  as  in  the  sugar- 
belt  for  making  the  beds  high. 

In  Louisiana  when  a  crop  is  grown  from  the  stubble,  the 
dried  tops  and  leaves  of  the  preceding  crop  are  burned 
in  winter;  the  first  tilling  then  consists  in  loosening  the 
soil  with  the  "  stubble  digger."  Previous  to  this,  any 
stubble  on  which  the  upper  eyes  have  been  injured  is  cut 
off  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  by  the  "  stubble 
shaver."  Fertilizer  is  applied  in  a  furrow  near  the  line 
of  stubble,  and  the  soil  is  then  thrown  back  towards  the 
row. 

Dr.  W.  C.  Stubbs  thus  describes  the  usual  steps  in  the  culti- 
vation of  sugar-cane  in  Louisiana :  "  As  soon  as  a  stand  is  secured 
in  either  plant  or  stubble  cane,  the  dirt  is  returned  and  the  mid- 
dles split  out  with  a  two-horse  plow  and  the  latter  then  sent  to 
the  tool-room,  to  remain  until  the  next  season.  The  first  culti- 
vation is  made  by  straddling  the  cane  with  the  disk  cultivator, 
using  three  unequal  disks,  running  them  very  shallow  and  throw- 
ing very  little  dirt  to  the  cane.  The  middle  or  diamond  culti- 
vator follows,  working  completely  the  middle  of  the  row.  In 
this  operation,  both  mules  walk  between  the  cane. 

"  The  next  cultivation  is  made  in  the  same  way,  or  if  the  cane 
has  grown  considerably  and  requires  more  dirt,  the  three  unequal 
disks  are  removed  and  two  or  three  of  equal  size  are  substituted. 
These  disks  can  be  dished  to  throw  much  or  little  dirt.  Having 
displaced  the  three  unequal  disks  with  those  of  equal  size,  the 


SUGAR-CANE  503 

cultivation  continues  with  them,  followed  immediately  by  the 
diamond  or  middle  cultivator  until  '  lay  by  '  is  desired.  Then 
a  single  large  disk  is  substituted  on  either  side  for  the  smaller 
equal  ones  on  the  disk  cultivator,  and  the  two  forward  shovels 
on  the  middle  cultivator  are  turned  up,  leaving  only  three  for 
work,  and  with  these  the  cane  is  laid  by." 

487.  Burning.  —  The  burning  of  the  dried  tops  and 
leaves  results  in  the  loss  of  all  the  nitrogen,  but  is  consid- 
ered advisable  in  the  sugar-belt  of  Louisiana  as  a  means 
(1)  of  destroying  many  cane  borers ;  (2)  of  causing  the  land 
to  dry  out  more  rapidly  than  if  the  litter  were  left  on  it ; 
and   (3)   of  disposing  of  the  unrotted  vegetable  matter 
that  would  interfere  with  cultivation. 

Suggested  system  of  cultivation  in  Cuba. —  Earle  ("Southern 
Agriculture,"  pp.  133-135)  recommends  for  Cuba  the  following 
as  an  improvement  over  the  system  generally  practiced  in  that 
country  in  the  care  of  cane  grown  from  stubble  :  — 

"  As  soon  as  the  cane  is  cut,  take  an  ordinary  horse  hay-rake 
and  drive  so  as  to  cross  the  cane  rows,  taking  the  trash  from  one 
middle  and  dumping  it  in  the  next  one.  This  quickly  and  cheaply 
clears  half  the  ground  so  that  it  can  be  plowed  and  cultivated,  and 
it  provides  a  double  mulch  of  trash  for  the  other  half,  so  thick 
and  heavy  that  practically  no  grass  or  weeds  can  come  through, 
and  these  middles  will  require  no  further  attention  for  the  season. 

"  Keep  the  alternate  middles  well  cultivated  until  the  begin- 
ning of  the  rainy  season,  and  then  sow  them  down  to  cowpeas 

The  next  year,  of  course',  the  middles  are  reversed,  so  that  all 
the  soil  is  thoroughly  aerated  and  pulverized  every  two  years.  .  .  . 
Plowed  strips  make  an  efficient  fire  break ;  .  .  .  (fire)  is  an  enemy 
more  dreaded  than  any  other  by  the  Cuban  planter." 

488.  Rotation  for  sugar-cane.  —  As  a  means  of  restor- 
ing the  nitrogen  removed  in  the  stalks  and  in  the  burning 
of  the  leaves,  the  sugar  planters  of  Louisiana  grow  and 


504  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


FIG.  211.  —  A  FIELD  OF  VELVET  BEANS. 
One  of  the  best  legumes  for  improving  very  sandy  soil^, 

plow  under  cowpeas  before  planting  cane.     Their  usual 
rotation  is :  — 

First  year:    Corn  with  broadcast  cowpeas  sown  as  early 


SUGAR-CANE  505 

as  practicable  and  at  the  rate  of  1  to  3  bushels  per 
acre. 

Second  year :  Sugar-cane  from  planted  canes. 

Third  year:  Sugar-cane  from  the  old  stubble.  If  the 
stand  of  stubble  is  good  and  the  land  very  rich,  a  third 
crop  of  sugar-cane  may  be  harvested,  this  also  springing 
from  the  old  stubble. 

The  Louisiana  Sugar  Experiment  Station  found  that 
when  the  entire  growth  of  cowpeas  was  plowed  under  as 
usual,  the  subsequent  yield  was  larger  by  7.4  tons  of  cane 
per  acre  than  where  only  the  stubble  of  the  cowpeas  was 
used  as  fertilizer. 

In  the  pine-belt  north  of  Florida,  annual  planting  of  sugar- 
cane is  generally  necessary.  In  this  region  sugar-cane 
should  usually  be  preceded  either  by  the  Iron  variety  of 
cowpeas  or  by  a  crop  of  velvet  beans  (Fig.  211),  plowed 
under  for  fertilizer.  Since  the  sugar-cane  plant  is  attacked 
by  nematode  worms,  this  plant  should  not  be  grown  on 
land  where  nematode  worms  and  cotton  wilt  are  found. 
(See  paragraphs  385  and  380.) 

VARIETIES 

489.  Standard  varieties.  —  By  far  the  most  popular 
variety  in  the  pine-belt  is  the  purple  or  red  cane.  The 
striped,  or  true  ribbon  cane,  is  used  to  a  limited  extent. 
For  sale  in  the  local  markets  for  chewing,  the  green  variety 
is  most  popular,  and  the  single  stalks  of  this  usually  sell 
at  about  double  the  price  of  other  kinds.  Green  cane  is 
but  little  used  for  sirup-making,  (1)  because  this  variety 
matures  later  than  purple  cane,  and  the  yield  of  sirup  is 
believed  to  be  less ;  (2)  because  green  cane  is  more  easily 


506  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

injured  while  in  the  seed-bed;  and  (3)  because  it  is  re- 
garded as  less  able  to  withstand  drought. 

490.  Other  varieties.  —  In  the  sugar-belt  red  or  purple 
cane  and  striped  cane  are  the  standard  kinds.  In  recent 
years  two  seedling  canes  introduced  by  the  Louisiana 
Experiment  Station  have  been  extensively  grown  in  Louisi- 
ana. These  are  D  74  and  D  95.  Both  have  afforded 
in  Louisiana  greater  yields,  a  greater  per  cent  of  crystalliz- 
able  sugar,  and  higher  purity  than  the  ordinary  purple 
cane. 

D  95  is  a  large,  erect,  purple  cane.  It  has  long  joints, 
large  stalks,  and  pale  green  foliage ;  it  "  suckers  "  or 
"  rattoons  "  well  and  is  fully  as  hardy  toward  cold  as 
ordinary  purple  cane. 

D  74  is  a  tall,  erect,  green  cane,  with  long  joints,  and  a 
deep  green  foliage.  It  "  suckers  "  abundantly  and  pro- 
duces large  stalks  and  heavy  yields. 

The  leaves  of  both  of  the  .above  varieties  are  upright  in 
growth  and  adhere  closely  to  the  stalk,  which  habit  may 
cause  them  to  be  topped  too  low.  The  yield  of  these 
varieties  is  greater  than  that  of  purple  cane;  the  sugar 
produced  has  been  found  to  average  nearly  $30  more  in 
value  (La.  Bui.  78,  p.  21)  than  that  from  an  acre  of  ordi- 
nary cane.  Moreover,  these  varieties  are  more  easily 
harvested,  being  straighter  than  ordinary  cane. 

The  Louisiana  Experiment  Station  made  many  field 
and  sugar-house  tests,  comparing  red  or  purple  with  striped 
cane.  The  striped  cane  had  the  following  advantages: 
The  stalks  grew  slightly  larger,  affording  a  large  yield  of 
cane;  the  stalks  were  softer  and  somewhat  more  easily 
crushed  and  manufactured  into  sugar. 


SUGAR-CANE  507 

The  red  or  purple  cane  was  hardier  and  multiplied 
better,  producing  about  16  per  cent  more  suckers  than 
did  striped  cane.  The  stalks  of  the  former  were  smaller, 
due  to  the  thicker  stand. 

491.  Japanese   sugar-cane.  —  This   cane  is   quite   dis- 
tinct from  the  other  kinds  generally  cultivated  in  the 
United  States.     The  canes  are  more  slender,  which  makes 
stripping  of  leaves  more  expensive  and  thus  decreases 
the  value  of  this  variety  for  the  manufacture  of  sirup. 
Japanese  cane  is  much  hardier  toward  cold  than  other 
varieties.     The  stubble,  even  as  far  north  as  latitude  33, 
puts  out  a  sufficient  number  of  shoots  to  insure  a  stand 
the  next  year.     A  single  planting  may  suffice  for  a  number 
of  years.     Only  a  thin  stand  is  needed  at  the  beginning 
of  the  season,  since  this  cane  suckers  very  profusely,  fifty 
or  more  stems  sometimes  arising  from  the  same  cluster. 
Its  hardiness  makes  Japanese   cane   available   for  sirup 
even  above  the  central  part  of  the  Gulf  States.     However, 
its  best  use  here  is  as  a  green  soiling  food  for  live-stock, 
especially  for  hogs. 

HARVESTING  AND  USES 

492.  Stripping,  topping,  and  cutting  (Fig.  212).  —  Where 
cane   is   grown   for   sugar,  the   plant  is   mature   enough 
to  be  stripped  of  its  leaves  when  the  lower  leaves  have 
become  brown  and  partly  loosened  on  the  stalk.     Another 
rule  as  to  the  best  time  for  cutting  cane  for  sugar-making 
is  to  wait,  if  practicable,  until  the  fresh  juice  is  thick  enough 
to  show  a  test  of  8  degrees  on  the  Baume"  spindle.     When 
the  usual  time  for  killing  frost  draws  near,  stripping  and 
harvesting  mast  be  done,  even  though  only  a  few  leaves 


508 


SOUTHERN  FIELD  CEOPS 


SUGAR-CANE  509 

have  loosened.  Every  additional  week  during  which  the 
cane  grows  now  adds  to  its  percentage  of  crystallizable 
sugar  (sucrose)  and  to  the  purity  of  the  juice  and  ease  of 
manufacture  into  sugar. 

Stripping  and  topping  are  usually  done  while  the  plants 
are  standing.  However,  in  the  sirup-belt,  the  expectation 
of  frost  sometimes  makes  it  necessary  to  cut  the  cane  before 
stripping.  In  this  case,  the  canes  are  piled  and  protected 
by  their  leaves  and  tops  until  the  stalks  can  be  stripped 
and  ground.  After  lying  thus  in  piles  for  a  week  or  more, 
the  leaves  somewhat  loosen  their  hold  on  the  stalk,  but 
this  is  more  than  overcome  by  the  extra  labor  required 
in  handling  the  cut  stalks  while  stripping  the  leaves. 

For  stripping  the  standing  plants  of  cane,  a  patented  stripper 
enables  the  laborer  in  the  pine-belt  to  work  about  twice  as  rapidly 
as  by  using  only  his  hands,  but  the  stalk  is  not  stripped  quite  so 


FIG.  213.  —  A  DEVICE  FOR  STRIPPING  THE  LEAVES  FROM  SUGAR-CANE. 

clean  of  green  leaf-sheaths  as  by  handwork.  A  stripper  (Fig. 
213)  consists  of  a  wooden  handle,  to  one  end  of  which  are  fastened 
two  curved,  flexible,  dull  blades,  so  arranged  that  they  easily 
spring  apart  to  admit  the  stalk  between  them.  By  a  thrust 
against  the  stalk  it  slips  into  the  space  made  by  the  curve  in  the 
blades ;  then  a  downward  stroke  removes  the  leaves  from  each 
side  of  the  plant. 

At  the  time  of  stripping,  the  tops  also  are  removed,  usually 
by  a  cane  knife,  at  a  point  just  above  the  uppermost  joint  that 
is  mature  or  colored.  The  cut  is  made  higher  up  for  sirup 
making  than  for  sugar  making,  because  the  uncrystallizable  sugar 


510  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

3ontained  in  the  upper  joints  is  not  harmful  in  sirup,  but  unde- 
sirable in  the  manufacture  of  sugar.  After  being  stripped  and 
topped,  the  canes  are  cut  near  the  ground  with  cane  knives  or 
sharp  hoes,  and  piled  at  convenient  intervals,  ready  to  be  hauled 
to  the  mill. 

In  a  single  test  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Chem.,  Bui.  75,  p.  29), 
it  was  found  by  chemical  analysis  that  stripping  ten  days  before 
topping  and  harvesting  had  the  effect  of  reducing  the  percentage 
of  total  sugar.  It  probably  also  decreased  the  weight  of  cane. 

By  the  use  of  ropes  or  hay  slings  laid  in  the  wagon  before 
loading  the  cane,  unloading  can  be  hastened,  -the  large  bundles 
being  removed  from  the  wagons  by  cranes. 

In  the  pine-belt,  stalks  intended  for  planting  are  dug 
rather  than  cut.  This  is  in  order  to  save  the  eyes  at  the 
base  of  the  stalk  and  to  decrease  the  danger  of  decay  of 
the  cut  cane.  Experiments  are  needed  to  determine 
whether  the  extra  labor  of  digging  is  justifiable  and  whether 
the  cut  cane  would  keep  as  well  as  dug  cane  if  the  ends  were 
dipped  in  tar  or  in  some  disinfectant. 

493.  Bedding  the  cane.  —  In  the  pine-belt,  before  the 
occurrence  of  the  first  killing  frost  in  the  fall,  that  part 
of  the  crop  intended  for  seed  cane  is  dug,  with  its  adhering 
leaves  and  tops,  and  piled  in  beds  as  follows  :  — 

A  layer  of  cane  is  placed  on  the  ground,  and  over  this  is  placed 
another  layer,  its  roots  also  resting  on  the  ground,  the  leaves  and 
tops  of  this  second  layer  covering .  most  of  the  first  layer.  In 
this  way  the  bed  is  formed,  each  layer  projecting  the  lower  part 
of  its  stalks  about  10  inches  beyond  the  layer  beneath,  the  tops 
and  leaves  of  each  layer  covering  the  canes  below  after  the  manner 
of  shingles.  The  width  of  the  bed  is  usually  6  to  10  feet,  and  the 
length  varies  with  the  amount  of  seed  cane  to  be  kept. 

When  all  the  cane  has  been  put  in,  it  is  covered  with  cane 
leaves,  and  over  all  is  thrown  a  layer  of  earth,  completely  cover- 


SUGAR-CANE  611 

ing  the  bed  to  a  depth  of  3  inches  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
cotton-belt  and  slightly  deeper  farther  north. 

A  rule  often  followed  is  to  save  one  sixth  of  the  crop  to  plant 
an  equal  area  the  next  year,  The  stalks  saved  for  seed  usually 
include  all  those  that  are  too  small  to  be  profitably  ground. 

494.  Harvesting   sugar-cane  in   Louisiana.  —  Harvest- 
ing is  done  by  hand,  the  laborers  at  one  operation  topping, 
stripping,  and  cutting  the  standing  cane,  using  a  cane 
knife.     Cane  loaders  (Fig.  210)  are  now  widely  used  in 
Louisiana.     These   usually  consist  of  a  swinging  boom 
mounted  on  a  heavy  wagon ;  a  grapple  fork,  lowered  from 
the  end  of  the  boom  and  operated  by  a  small  gasoline 
engine,  lifts  the  cane  from  the  heaps  on  the  ground  to  the 
carts,  or  from  the  carts  into  the  railroad  cars. 

Several  cane  harvesters  have  been  patented,  but  up  to 
1910  none  of  them  has  come  into  general  use.  One  great 
difficulty  in  securing  a  satisfactory  cane  harvester  is  the 
crooked  condition  of  many  of  the  stalks. 

There  are  elaborate  devices  for  unloading  cars  at  the 
sugar  factories  and  for  carrying  the  canes  thence  to  the 
rollers  of  the  mills.  Much  of  the  crop  is  transported  by 
rail  from  the  fields  to  the  sugar  house. 

495.  Time  of  harvesting.  —  That  part  of  the  crop  in- 
tended to  be  planted  in  the  fall  is  cut  early,  chiefly  before 
the  grinding  season  begins,  and  is  promptly  planted.     The 
canes  intended  for  planting  in  the  spring  are  cut  later, 
but  before  being  injured  by  frost,  and  immediately  placed, 
without  being  topped,  in  windrows  in  every  second  water- 
furrow,   the  tops  and    leaves  of  the  uppermost    plants 
covering  and  protecting  the  stems  of  those  below,  lapping 
like  shingles. 


512  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

Furrows  are  then  thrown  on  the  windrows  and  the  cover- 
ing of  earth  is  completed  by  the  use  of  hoes.  In  spring 
the  surplus  soil  is  removed,  and  the  cane  is  pulled  out  by 
driving  suitable  implements  across  the  windrows. 

This  method  of  keeping  planting  cane  in  Louisiana 
differs  from  the  practice  in  the  pine-belt. 

496.  Yields  of  cane.  —  The  average  yield  for  Louisiana 
is  about  20  to  22  tons  per  acre ;  25  tons  is  a  fair  yield  and 
many  fields  produce  30  tons  or  more  per  acre.     A  good 
average  yield,  of  sugar  is  150  to  160  pounds  per  ton,  giving 
an  average  of  more  than  3000  pounds  per  acre,  and  under 
favorable  conditions  and  in  special  cases,  a  yield  of  4500 
pounds  of  sugar.     An  average  yield  of  sugar  is  accom- 
panied by  a  yield  of  molasses  amounting  to  about  100  to 
120  gallons  per  acre.     In  making  sirup  alone  an  average 
yield  in  the  alluvial  lands  of  Louisiana  would  be  500  to 
600  gallons  per  acre. 

In  the  sandy  uplands  of  the  pine-belt,  the  yield  is  usually 
smaller,  or  12  to  15  tons  of  cane  per  acre.  However,  on 
the  sandier  soil  the  cane  is  richer  in  total  sugars.  In  this 
region,  it  is  a  poor  yield  or  a  poor  mill  that  affords  less 
than  300  gallons  of  sirup  per  acre.  Under  favorable 
conditions  and  with  good  mills,  yields  above  600  gallons 
per  acre  are  sometimes  made. 

In  Hawaii,  by  means  of  irrigation  and  the  liberal  use 
of  fertilizers,  yields  of  more  than  100  tons  of  cane  and 
24,000  pounds  of  sugar  per  acre  have  been  produced.  The 
average  yield  of  the  irrigated  plantations  in  Hawaii  is 
said  to  be  7  tons  of  sugar  per  acre. 

497.  Uses.  —  Sugar-cane  is  more  extensively  used  for 
the  production  of  sugar  than  for  any  other  purpose.     This 


SUGAR-CANE  513 

is  its  almost  exclusive  use  in  countries  where  the  warm 
seasons  are  long,  as  in  Louisiana,  Hawaii,  and  Cuba.  In 
those  regions  where  the  climate  is  warm  enough  for  the 
growing  of  sugar-cane,  but  where  fall  frosts  occur  too  early 
for  the  plant  to  reach  the  degree  of  maturity  necessary  for 
profitable  sugar-making,  this  plant  is  used  for  the  produc- 
tion of  sirup.  Since,  in  the  United  States,  sugar-cane  can 
be  grown  for  sirup  over  an  area  considerably  larger  than 
that  suitable  for  profitable  sugar  production,  a  larger  num- 
ber of  farmers  are  probably  engaged  in  growing  this  plant 
for  sirup  than  for  sugar.  However,  the  average  sirup 
maker  grows  but  a  few  acres  at  most,  while  in  the  sugar- 
belt,  single  plantations  include  hundreds  or  even  thou- 
sands of  acres  of  cane. 

Sirup  is  the  product  obtained  by  boiling  the  juice  from 
the  cane.  Molasses  is  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture 
of  sugar,  and,  in  its  unadulterated  form,  much  less  exten- 
sively used  on  the  table  than  is  sirup.  Blackstrap  is  the 
name  of  a  very  inferior  grade  of  molasses,  chiefly  valuable 
as  food  for  live-stock. 

The  chief  difficulty  in  extending  the  market  for  sirup 
lies  in  the  fact  that  there  is  such  a  wide  variation  in  the 
quality  of  sirup  made  by  different  farmers.  Certain  im- 
provements in  the  methods  of  making  sirup  as  shown  in 
later  paragraphs  would  result  in  a  more  uniform  product 
and  in  an  increased  demand. 

498.  By-products.  —  The  tops  and  green  leaves  of  sugar- 
cane make  a  satisfactory  food  for  live-stock.  The  crushed 
stalks,  called  "  bagasse,"  are  seldom  utilized  in  the  pine- 
belt,  but  they  are  used  as  fuel  in  the  sugar  houses.  From 
this  material  also  paper  has  been  successfully  made. 

2L 


514  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


SIRUP-MAKING 

499.  The  equipment.  —  Since  the  making  of  sugar  is  a 
highly  specialized  branch  of  manufacturing,  and  not  a  part 
of  farm  work,  a  discussion  of  sugar  making  would  be  out 
of  place  in  this  book.  On  the  other  hand,  the  making 
of  sirup  is  usually  a  part  of  the  farmer's  operations ;  hence 
it  will  be  briefly  discussed  here. 

The  usual  equipment  for  the  making  of  sirup  is  not 
expensive.  It  consists  essentially  of  a  mill  for  crushing 
the  cane  and  of  a  shallow  pan,  heated  by  furnace  heat  or 
by  steam,  for  evaporating  the  juice  of  the  cane  down  to 
the  density  required  in  sirup. 

The  small  roller  mills  operated  by  a  single  horse  often 
extract  only  about  half  of  the  juice,  thus  causing  an  enor- 
mous loss.  A  first-class  three-roller  mill,  properly  set, 
will  extract  60  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  cane  or  70 
per  cent  of  the  total  juice.  More  powerful  mills  with  a 
larger  number  of  rollers  and  usually  driven  by  steam,  may 
express  more  than  80  per  cent  of  the  juice. 

The  evaporator  is  usually  a  rectangular  pan  placed  above 
a  home-made  furnace,  in  which  wood  furnishes  the  neces- 
sary heat.  The  bottom  of  the  pan  consists  of  a  sheet  of 
copper  or  galvanized  iron,  and  the  sides  are  usually  of 
wood.  In  the  pan  are  three  divisions,  separated  by  par- 
titions, in  which  are  gates  or  openings  intended  to  regulate 
the  flow  of  juice  from  one  compartment  to  the  next  one. 

When  steam  is  available,  it  is  more  convenient  to  cook 
the  sirup  by  means  of  the  heat  given  off  by  coils  of  steam 
pipes  laid  in  the  bottom  of  the  evaporating-pan.  The 
advantage  of  steam  heat  consists  in  the  ability  to  regulate. 


SUGAR-CANS  516 

by  a  cut-off,  the  amount  of  heat,  and  thus  to  avoid  any 
danger  of  scorching  the  sirup. 

After  being  expressed  by  grinding,  the  fresh  juice  is 
strained.  In  addition,  it  is  sometimes  strained  through 
a  barrel  of  black  moss.  From  the  strainer  the  juice  is 
conveyed  to  the  evaporator.  Here  it  is  heated  rather 
slowly.  Heat  causes  the  solid  impurities  to  coagulate  or 
collect  in  masses  of  scum.  This  scum  is  removed  before 
boiling  begins,  and  repeated  skimmings  remove  all  other 
scum  that  rises.  The  boiling  is  continued  in  the  next  two 
compartments  of  the  evaporator  until  the  hot  sirup  has 
a  ropy  consistency,  or,  better  still,  until  a  Baume  hy- 
drometer, dropped  into  a  slender  deep  vessel  of  hot  sirup, 
sinks  to  the  mark  on  the  scale  indicating  a  density  of 
34°.  This  instrument,  costing  only  about  $1,  is  a  far 
safer  guide  as  to  when  to  stop  the  cooking  than  is  the 
eye,  even  of  an  experienced  sirup  maker.  The  use  of  a 
hydrometer  is  essential  for  all  who  would  make  a  uniform 
grade  of  sirup. 

500.  Preventing  sirup  from  turning  to  sugar.  —  The 
first  aim  in  making  sirup  is  to  produce  an  article  of  an 
agreeable  flavor  and  nearly  clear,  or  of  bright  color.  The 
use  of  immature  cane  or  of  cane  injudiciously  fertilized 
results  in  injury  to  the  flavor  and  appearance  of  the  sirup. 

Another  important  aim  in  making  sirup  is  to  make  a 
product  that  will  not,  at  a  later  date,  crystallize  or  turn  to 
sugar.  The  larger  the  proportion  of  glucose  (or  non- 
crystallizable  sugar)  in  the  sirup  the  less  is  the  danger  of 
the  sirup  turning  to  sugar. 

Conditions  favorable  to  a  large  proportion  of  glucose,  and  hence 
to  a  sirup  not  easily  crystallized,  are  the  following :  — 


516  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 

(1)  Cane  not  thoroughly  ripe  in  the  upper  joints,  that  is,  cane 
topped  rather  high,  since  it  is  these  partially  ripened  internodes 
that  contain  the  largest  proportion  of  noncrystallizable  sugar. 

(2)  Juice  that  is  slightly  acid,  as  indicated  by  its  changing 
blue  litmus  paper  to  a  reddish  color.     If  the  perfectly  fresh 
juice  is  not  distinctly  acid,  it  becomes  acid  after  standing  for  a 
time,  and  after  being  repeatedly  strained,  by  which  it  is  brought 
into  contact  with  acid-forming  germs. 

(3)  Slow  cooking  is  desirable,  since  crystallizable  sugar  may  be 
changed  to  glucose  when  heated  for  a  long  time  in  the  presence 
of  an  acid,  as  in  the  acid  juice. 

(4)  Stopping  the  cooking  before  the  sirup  becomes  very  con- 
centrated checks  the  tendency  to  crystallize. 

(5)  Exclusion  of  air,  by  canning  or  bottling  while  hot,  is  an 
effective  means  by  which  sirup  is  kept  from  turning  to  sugar. 

501.  Effects  of  canning.  —  The  sirup  that  commands 
the  highest  price  is  that  which,  while  still  boiling  hot,  is 
placed  in  cans,  jugs,  bottles,  or  other  air-tight  vessels, 
and  promptly  sealed,  using  solder  on  tins  or  sealing  wax 
on  top  of  the  cprks  of  jugs  or  bottles. 

The  reason  for  placing  sirup  while  hot  in  air-tight 
vessels  is  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  germs,  which  would 
cause  the  sirup  to  ferment.  Intense  heat  destroys  what- 
ever germs  may  be  already  present  in  the  empty  vessels. 
However,  it  is  best  first  to  sterilize  these  vessels,  that  is, 
to  kill  the  germs  in  them,  by  the  use  of  steam.  It  has  been 
found  possible  to  preserve  sirup  in  an  unfermented  con- 
dition in  tight  barrels  which  had  been  sterilized  by  steam 
and  sealed  while  the  sirup  was  still  very  hot.  However, 
it  is  usually  not  possible  to  keep  barreled  sirup  in  a  com- 
pletely sterile  condition.  Hence,  barreled  sirup  should 
be  consumed  in  winter,  while  that  preserved  in  sealed  cans, 
jugs,  or  bottles  may  be  safely  kept  for  use  in  warm  weather, 


SUGAR-CANE  517 

502.  Use     of    chemicals    in     sirup-making.  —  Certain 
simple  chemical  substances  are  freely  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  sirup.     The  clear  color  and  the  degree  of  acidity 
desirable  to  prevent  sugaring  of  unsealed  sirup  are  some- 
times attained  by  passing  the  juice  downward  in  thin 
layers  through  a  box  or  barrel  in  which  it  is  exposed  to  the 
ascending  fumes  of  sulfur,  burned  in  a  small  furnace  con- 
nected with  the  bottom  of  the  sulfuring  vessel. 

Lime,  slacked  to  a  thin  paste,  is  often  added  to  clear 
the  juice  by  causing  the  vegetable  impurities  in  the  juice 
to  settle.  Care  is  taken  not  to  add  enough  lime  to  over- 
come the  acidity  of  the  juice  unless  means  of  overcoming 
the  effects  of  lime  are  at  hand.  If  the  juice  should  become 
alkaline,  its  acidity  may  be  restored  by  the  addition  of  a 
little  of  a  preparation  called  "  clariphos,"  (a  pure  form 
of  phosphate  of  lime,  which  also  assists  in  clarifying  the 
juice). 

HISTORY  AND  STATISTICS 

503.  Early    cultivation.  —  Sugar-cane    is    a    native    of 
Asia  and  probably  of  India.     It  was  cultivated  in  India 
and  China  long  before  the  Christian  era.     Yet  not  until 
after  the  discovery  of  America  did  sugar  become  a  very 
important  article  of  consumption  among  the  inhabitants 
of  Europe  and  America.    The  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans 
seem  to  have  lacked  the  luxury  of  sugar. 

From  Asia,  sugar-cane  was  carried  to  the  islands  of 
Oceania  and  to  Africa.  The  Portuguese  carried  it  to  the 
Madeira  and  Canary  Islands,  southwest  of  Europe,  whence, 
soon  after  the  discovery  of  the  New  World,  it  was  brought 
to  the  West  Indies. 


518  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

From  the  West  Indies,  sugar-cane  was  introduced  into 
Louisiana  and  Florida  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century. 

The  first  sugar  from  sugar-cane  in  what  is  now  the 
United  States  was  made  in  Louisiana  in  1791,  but  so  small 
was  the  quantity  that  the  product  was  rather  an  article 
of  curiosity  than  of  use.  In  1795  sugar  was  first  manu- 
factured in  Louisiana  on  an  extensive  scale.  De  Bore,  the 
pioneer  in  sugar-making  in  the  United  States,  made  a 
fortune  in  growing  sugar-cane  and  in  manufacturing  sugar 
on.his  plantation  in  Louisiana. 

504.  Production.  —  From  this  small  beginning  the 
production  of  sugar  increased  so  rapidly  that  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Civil  War,  within  two  thirds  of  a  century 
after  the  first  sugar  was  manufactured  in  Louisiana,  the 
annual  production  of  sugar  in  that  state  had  reached  about 
a 'quarter  of  a  million  tons.  The  Civil  War  reduced  the 
yield  to  a  small  fraction  of  this  amount.  At  the  end  of 
the  first  decade  of  the  twentieth  century  Louisiana  was 
producing  annually  about  a  third  of  a  million  tons  of  sugar. 
During  this  decade  the  sugar  industry  in  the  southern  part 
of  Texas  has  developed  rapidly. 

Hawaii  produces  somewhat  more  sugar,  and  Porto  Rico 
somewhat  less,  than  does  Louisiana.  Cuba  manufac- 
tures considerably  more  sugar  than  the  total  product 
of  all  the  American  states  and  territories  just  named.  Cuba 
and  Java  are  the  world's  largest  producers  of  sugar  from 
sugar-cane. 

In  recent  years  the  world's  annual  crop  of  sugar  of  all 
kinds  is  about  14,000,000  tons,  more  than  half  of  which 
is  made  from  sugar-beets.  Sugar-cane  affords  about 


SUGAR-CANE  519 

5,000,000  tons  of  sugar  annually.  Sorghum,  the  sugar 
palm,  and  the  sugar-maple  tree  afford  relatively  insig- 
nificant amounts  of  sugar. 

505.  Home    consumption.  —  The    United    States    con- 
sumes a  larger  quantity  of  sugar  in  proportion  to  popula- 
tion than  any  other  country ;  it  produces  in  the  Southern 
States  and  in  Hawaii  and  Porto  Rico,  less  than  half  of 
the   sugar   consumed  in  the   United   States.     Therefore, 
there  is  room  for  immense  expansion  in  this  country  in 
the  growing  of  sugar-cane  for  the  manufacture  of  sugar. 

ENEMIES 

506.  Insects.  —  The    cane-borer    (Diatrea    saccharalis) 
is  the  principal  insect  enemy  of  sugar-cane  in  Louisiana, 
and  this  pest  is  widely  distributed  in  cane-growing  coun- 
tries.    It  is  the  larva,  or  caterpillar  form,  of  a  yellowish 
moth.     The   full-grown   larva   measures   about   one    and 
a  quarter  inches  in  length.     The  injury  is  done  by  boring 
into  the  stalks  of  cane.     Sorghum,  Johnson  grass,  and  corn 
are  also  attacked ;  this  insect  is  also  known  as  the  "  larger 
corn-stalk  borer." 

The  best  treatment  is  merely  preventive,  and  consists  in 
burning  the  tops  and  other  litter  of  the  cane  in  those  regions 
where  this  borer  is  found,  an(J  in  destroying  any  Johnson 
grass  in  and  near  the  cane-fields.  Since  the  borer  has 
not  been  reported  extensively,  if  at  all,  in  the  American 
sirup-belt,  where  cane  is  not  grown  for  several  years 
in  succession  on  the  same  land,  care  should  be  taken 
not  to  import  this  pest  in  seed  canes  from  any  infested 
region. 


520  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

The  Southern  grass-worm  (Laphygma  frugiperda)  is  some- 
times troublesome  in  Louisiana  after  overflows.  Treatment 
consists  in  attaching  a  light  piece  of  timber  to  the  cultivating 
implement  in  such  a  way  as  to  jar  the  cane,  which  causes  the 
caterpillars  to  fall  to  the  ground,  where  they  are  covered  with 
soil  by  the  cultivator.  Dusting  plants  with  one  part  Paris  green 
to  five  parts  of  slacked  lime  is  also  recommended  by  Stubbs. 

'The  sugar-cane  leaf-hopper  occurs  in  Hawaii,  having  been 
accidentally  introduced  in  seed  canes  from  Australia.  The 
method  of  combating  it  consists  in  the  importation  of  its  insect 
enemies  or  parasites.  This  leaf-hopper  is  not  known  in  the 
United  States. 

507.  Diseases.  —  Red  cane,  a  discoloration  of  the  in- 
terior of  the  stem  following  cuts  or  bruises,  is  harmful  if 
such  injured  canes  are  planted. 

There  are  several  serious  fungous  and  bacterial  diseases 
of  sugar-cane  occurring  in  tropical  countries.  Among 
the  means  of  escaping  many  of  these  are  the  selection  of 
varieties  that  show  the  greatest  resistance  to  these 
diseases. 

Root  disease.  —  This  is  due  to  a  fungus  (Marismius  sacchari), 
which  may  live  from  season  to  season  in  the  soil  or  in  the  dead 
and  decaying  parts  of  the  diseased  cane  plants.  The  disease 
may  be  shown  above  ground  by  the  formation  of  a  white,  mold- 
like  growth  on  the  lower  leaves.  The  plants  appear  as  if  suffering 
from  severe  drought,  due  to  the  loss  of  many  of  the  small  roots, 
killed  by  this  disease.  Preventive  measures  consist  in  burning 
the  cane  litter  or  diseased  areas  and  planting  canes  free  from 
disease.  It  is  best  for  the  canes  for  planting  to  be  grown  in  a 
special  seed  field,  the  "  seed  cane  "  for  which  has  either  been 
carefully  examined,  or  perhaps  disinfected  (La.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui. 
100).  Any  methods  of  improving  conditions  for  the  growth  of 
cane,  as  drainage  and  good  cultivation,  minimize  the  injury  from 
this  disease. 


SUGAR-CANE  523 


LABORATORY  EXERCISES 

(1)  Count  and  record  the  number  of  true  roots  from  a  node 
just  under  the  surface  of  the  ground  ;  also  the  number  of  dots  on 
a  node  about  a  foot  above  the  ground.     Do  roots  develop  from 
most  of  the  dots  ? 

(2)  Measure  and  record  in  order  the  length  of  each  internode 
from  the  surface  of  the  ground  to  the  uppermost  part  of  the  stem. 

(3)  Cut  a  cross  section  through  a  stalk  of  sugar-cane  and  make 
a  drawing  showing  the  relative  number  of  bundles  near  the  center 
and  near  the  rind. 

(4)  Dip  the  cut  end  of  a  cane  bearing  green  leaves  into  diluted 
red  ink,  and  a  few  hours  later  split  the  next  few  joints  above, 
and  trace  the  red  liquid  rising  in  the  water  vessels.     Make  a 
drawing  of  one  such  longitudinal  section. 

(5)  When  a  cane  mill  is  next  seen  at  work,  note  the  dropping 
of  the  liquid  from  one  end  of  the  cane  as  soon  as  the  roller  presses 
the  other  end. 

(6)  If  cane  that  has  been  kept  over  winter  or  subjected  to 
cold  weather  can  be  found,  cut  lengthwise  through  a  live  bud 
and  through  a  dead  bud,  and  make  a  drawing  or  description  of 
the  appearance  of  each. 

(7)  Wash  away  the  soil  from  around  a  cluster  of  canes  and 
attempt  to  determine  which  is  the  oldest  and  which  the  youngest 
cane  in  the  cluster. 

LITERATURE 
General. 

STUBBS,   W.  C.     Sugar-cane.     Vol.  I.     La.  State  Dept.  Agr., 

Baton  Rouge,  Louisiana. 
STUBBS,  W.  C.,  BLOTJIN,  R.  E.,  and  DODSON,  W.  R.     La.  Expr. 

Sta.,  Buls.  Nos.  59,  66,  70,  78,  100. 
EARLE,   F.    S.     Southern  Agriculture.     (The   Macmillan   Co.), 

New  York,  pp.  117-141. 

EARLE,  F.  S.     Cuba  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  2  (English  Edition). 
COBB,  N.  A.     Sugar-cane..     Bailey's  Cyclo.  Agr.,  Vol.   II,  pp, 

599-611. 


522  SOUTHEEN  FIELD   CROPS 

WIGHT,  J.  B.  Sugar-cane.  Association  of  Commissioners  ot 
Agr.  of  Southern  States,  Proceedings  of  Fourth  Annual 
Meeting  (1902),  pp.  66-75. 

Manufacture  of  sirup. 
Ross,  B.  B.     Ala.  Expr.  Sta.,  Buls.  Nos.  66,  103,  133.     (All  out 

of  print.) 

STOCKBRIDGE,  H.  E.     Fla.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  44. 
ROSE,  R.  E.,  and  McQuARRiE,  C.  K.     Fla.  Farmers'  Institutes, 

Bui.  No.  1. 
WILEY,  H.  W.,  and  others.      U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,   Bur.  Chem., 

Buls.  Nos.  70,  75,  93,  103. 


CHAPTER  XXX 

TOBACCO — NlCOTIANA    TABACUM 

TOBACCO  belongs  to  the  nightshade  family  ^Solanacece) . 
This  family  also  includes  the  Irish  potato,  tomato,  and 
the  Jimson  weed. 

Tobacco  is  used  chiefly  for  human  consumption,  the 
habit  of  chewing  and  smoking  being  general  throughout 
a  large  part  of  the  world.  Snuff,  insecticides,  and  some 
other  articles  are  also  manufactured  from  tobacco.  The 
stems  and  other  cheap  by-products  make  valuable  fer- 
tilizers. 

508.  Description.  —  Tobacco  is  annual  and  makes  its 
growth  during  the  warm  season.     The  plant  has  a  stout 
stem,  usually  4  to  7  feet  high,  from  which  grow  large,  thin 
leaves,  which  constitute  the  valuable  part  of  the  plant. 
The  root  system  is  rather  shallow ;  the  leaves  vary  in  size 
and  shape  in  different  types  and  varieties  of  tobacco. 
They  are  arranged  in  eight  vertical  ranks,  so  that  the 
ninth  leaf  is  immediately  above  the  first  or  lowest  leaf,  a 
fact  which  enables  the  farmer  to  top  the  plant  to  a  definite 
number  of  leaves  without  stopping  to  count  all  of  them. 

509.  Distribution   of   tobacco.  —  The   first   settlers   in 
America  found  the  Indians  cultivating  tobacco,  and  this 
crop  soon  became  the  leading  cash  crop  of  the  Virginia 
and  Maryland  colonists.     It  even  became  the  medium 

523 


524  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

of  exchange,  taking  the  place  of  money.  Tobacco  is  now 
extensively  grown  in  certain  restricted  sections  from  Con- 
necticut to  Texas.  Among  the  Southern  States  Kentucky 
is  the  largest  producer,  followed  by  Virginia  and  North 
Carolina.  In  recent  years,  the  production  of  a  high-grade 
cigar  tobacco  has  become  a  leading  industry  in  the  north- 
ern part  of  Florida  and  in  other  localities  in  the  Gulf  States. 

510.  Composition.  —  All  kinds  of  tobacco  contain  vary- 
ing quantities  of  the  narcotic  alkaloid,  nicotine,  which  is 
a  recognized  poison.     The  heavier  and  stronger  the  leaf, 
the  larger,  as  a  rule,  is  the  proportion  of  nicotine. 

All  parts  of  the  tobacco  plant  are  rich  in  potash  and 
nitrogen  and  also  contain  considerable  amounts  of  phos- 
phoric acid.  Tobacco  is  an  exhausting  crop. 

511.  Soils   and   their  relation  to   types   of  tobacco.  — 
None  of  the  ordinary  crops  of  the  farm  is  so  much  influ- 
enced in  quality  by  the  soil  on  which  grown  as  is  tobacco. 
For  this  reason  tobacco  culture  is  largely  confined  to  re- 
stricted   areas    and    to  particular    soils.     An    exact   de- 
scription of   the  soils  suited  to  each  type  is  not  easily 
made.      In  general,    cigar    tobacco    and  other  kinds   in 
which  a   thin  leaf   is   desirable   succeed   best  on   rather 
light   or   sandy   soils.      On   the   other  hand,    heavy   or 
dark  tobacco  is  best  suited  to  stiff er  land.     Burley  tobacco 
is  grown  almost  exclusively  on  limestone  soils,  chiefly  in 
Kentucky  and  adjacent  states. 

For  most  grades  of  tobacco,  newly  cleared  land  is  pre- 
ferred, since  an  abundance  of  humus  is  desirable.  For 
this  reason,  growers  of  this  crop  have  cleared  .most  of  the 
forests  from  the  best  soils  of  the  tobacco  districts. 

The'  dark  export  tobacco  of  Virginia  is  largely  grown 


TOBACCO  525 

on  the  reddish  soils  described  as  Cecil  sandy  loam  and 
Cecil  clay. 

Cuban  cigar  tobacco  thrives  best  on  gray  sandy  soils 
and  on  the  Orangeburg  series,  consisting  of  a  fine  sandy 
loam,  or  clay  loam,  with  stiffer,  reddish  clay-loam  subsoil. 

For  Sumatra  tobacco  in  Florida,  gray,  sandy,  hammock 
land,  new  and  rich,  is  preferred.  There  are  many  other 
special  kinds  of  soil  suited  to  particular  types  of  tobacco. 

512.  Fertilizers.  —  As  shown  before,  tobacco  removes 
from  the  soil  a  large  amount  of  potash  and  nitrogen.     For 
this  and  for  many  other  reasons  (including  the  desirability 
that  the  plant  should  make  a  rapid  and  continuous  growth) , 
tobacco  is  liberally  fertilized.     The  chief  reliance  is  on 
commercial  fertilizers. 

The  form  in  which  potash  is  applied  is  especially  im- 
portant. Muriate  of  potash  and  kainit  should  both  be 
avoided,  because  of  the  large  amount  of  chlorine  found  in 
both,  which  element  is  unfavorable  to  the  burning  quali- 
ties and  other  properties  of  tobacco.  Instead,  potash  is 
best  applied  in  the  form  of  carbonate  or  sulfate  of  potash. 

513.  Nitrogen  supply.  —  Nitrogen  may  be  applied  in 
several  forms :   Organic  nitrogen,  supplied  by  cotton-seed 
meal,  dried  blood,  etc.,  is  a  preferred  form.     Nitrate  of 
soda  is  also  used  in  moderate  amounts.     A  mixture  of 
organic  nitrogen  and  of  nitrate  of  soda  is  apparently 
preferable    to    either    alone.     Barnyard    manure    usually 
makes  the  leaf  coarser  than  it  would  otherwise  be;   yet 
cow  manure  has  been  advised  for  shade-grown  Sumatra 
tobacco  in  Florida,  especially  with  the  view  to  supplying 
humus  and  making  the  growth  of  the  root  system  so  rapid 
as  to  cause  the  production  of  new  roots  more  rapidly  than 


526  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 

the  nematode  worms  (paragraph  385)  can  destroy  the  older 
roots. 

514.  Formula.  —  A  fair  proportion  of  acid  phosphate 
is  customary  in  all  tobacco  fertilizers,  but  an  excess  of 
this  constituent  has  been  found  to  injure  the  quality  of 
the  leaf.     A  complete  fertilizer  similar  in  composition  to 
one  in  common  use  in  North  Carolina  may  be  made  as 
follows :  — 

300  pounds  acid  phosphate  per  acre, 

50  pounds  nitrate  of  soda, 
200  pounds  dried  blood,  and 
150  pounds  high-grade  sulfate  of  potash. 

For  shade-grown  Sumatra  tobacco,  the  amount  of  fertilizer 
used  is  several  times  larger  than  indicated  above.  For  this  pur- 
pose A.  D.  Shamel  recommends  the  following  kinds  and  amounts 
per  acre : — 

1000  pounds  cotton  seed, 
1000  pounds  cotton-seed  meal, 
300  pounds  carbonate  of  potash, 
700  pounds  fine  ground  bone, 
800  pounds  lime, 
3800  pounds,  total. 

515.  Types  and  varieties  of  tobacco.  —  "  The  principal 
types  of  tobacco  are  the  following  :   (1)  Cigar  wrapper  and 
binder ;  (2)  cigar  filler ;  (3)  chewing  or  plug ;  (4)  smoking ; 
(5)  export  tobaccos."     Types  refer  chiefly  to  the  principal 
use  made  of  each  kind,  and  to  the  market  for  each. 

Cigar  wrapper  and  binder  tobacco  is  produced  from 
several  widely  different  varieties,  the  kind  commanding 
the  highest  price  being  the  Sumatra,  grown  under  cloth 
or  slat  shade,  chiefly  along  the  Gulf  coast.  The  best  of 


TOBACCO 


527 


the  shade-grown  Cuban  tobacco  is  also  sold  as  high-priced 
cigar  wrappers.  Cuban  tobacco  grown  without  shade 
is  chiefly  employed  for  cigar  fillers  ;  that  is,  for  the  body 
of  cigars.  In  the  United  States  it  is  grown  chiefly  in 
Connecticut  and  near  the  Gulf  Coast. 

The  dark,  heavy  tobaccos  of  southern  Virginia  and  of 
Tennessee,  —  for  example,  the  varieties  Blue  Pryor  and 
Orinoco,  —  belong  chiefly  to  the 
chewing  or  plug  and  to  the  export 
types.  The  greater  part  of  the 
bright  tobacco  of  North  Carolina 
and  of  the  light-colored  tobaccos 
of  Virginia  and  Maryland  are 
employed  for  smoking. 

The  White  Burley,  grown  in 
Kentucky,  is  chiefly  used  for 
chewing  tobacco,  but  also  for 
smoking. 

516.  Saving  seed,  and  tobacco 
breeding.  —  The  large,  conspicu- 
ous flowers  (Fig.  214)  of  tobacco 
are  borne  in  clusters.  The 
flowers  are  either  self-pollinated 
or  cross-pollinated.  Experiments 
have  demonstrated  that  by  in- 
closing the  flower  buds  under 

paper  bags  so  as  to  prevent  cross-  FlG-  SW.- 

BACCO  FLOWER. 
pollination,  the  plants  from  seed 

thus  produced  are  more  uniform,  productive,  and  vigorous 
than  when  cross-pollination  is  permitted.  Any  variety 
of  tobacco  can  be  improved  by  careful  selection  of  the 


OF  To- 


528 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


FIG.  215.  —  SHOWING  THE  RESULTS  OF  BREEDING  A  STRAIN  OF  TOBACCO 
RESISTANT  TO  DISEASE. 


FIG.  216. — YOUNG  TOBACCO  PLANTS. 
The  largest  plant,  on  the  left,  is  from  the  heaviest  seed. 


TOBACCO  529 

best  plants  (Fig.  215)  and  by  thus  bagging  the  flowers 
to  insure  self-pollination.  Only  the  central  cluster  of 
flowers  should  be  bagged,  the  others, being  removed. 

The  seeds  of  tobacco  are  extremely  small.  The 
largest  of  these  produce  much  better  plants  than 
the  smallest  (Fig.  216).  A  special  device  or  blower 
has  been  invented  for  use  in  removing  the  smaller 
seed  from  those  to  be  planted  (Fig.  217).  This 
device  consists  of  a  glass  tube  about  five  feet  long, 
with  a  fine-mesh  wire  screen  near  the  bottom,  and 
a  small  bellows  connected  with  the  lower  end  of  the 
tube. 

In  growing  Sumatra  and  Cuban  tobacco,  it  is 
customary  to  import  the  seed  every  year  or  every 
few  years  from  Sumatra  and  Cuba. 

CULTURAL  METHODS 

517.  Seed-bed.  —  The  seed 
of  tobacco  are  so  minute,  re- 
quiring about  5,000,000  to 
make  one  pound,  that  it  is 
necessary  to  germinate  the 
seed  and  start  the  young  FIG.  217.— A  TOBACCO  SEED 
plants  in  a  specially  prepared 

seed-bed,  from  which  they  are  later  transplanted  to  the 
field.  The  preferred  location  for  a  seed-bed  is  on  recently 
cleared  land,  where  the  soil  contains  much  vegetable 
matter  and  few  seeds  of  grass  and  weeds.  A  well-drained 
spot,  sheltered  on  the  north,  is  usually  best.  The  seed- 
bed should  be  convenient  to  water,  since  the  bed  must  be 

2M 


530  SOUTHEEN  FIELD   CEOPS 

watered  often  enough  to  keep  it  continually  moist,  in 
order  to  insure  the  prompt  germination  of  the  seed  and 
the  rapid  growth  of  the  young  plants. 


FIG.  218.  —  A  CLOTH  SHADE  OR  TENT,  HERE  USED  AS  A  SEED-BED. 

As  a  rule,  brush  and  wood  are  burned  on  the  chosen 
spot  until  the  soil  has  been  well  heated  to  a  depth  of  about 


TOBACCO  531 

3  inches.  The  chief  object  in  this  is  to  destroy  weed  seeds. 
Then  the  soil  is  spaded  or  dug  and  thoroughly  prepared 
by  raking.  The  bed  is  inclosed  on  all  sides  by  a  frame 
made  of  inch  boards  placed  on  edge. 

Since  the  burning  drives  off  much  of  the  nitrogen,  and  since 
the  seeds  are  so  small  as  to  furnish  practically  no  food  to  the 
young  plant,  the  bed  must  be  fertilized  liberally,  using  quickly 
soluble,  complete  fertilizers  rich  in  nitrogen.  About  20  pounds 
of  nitrate  of  soda  for  each  100  square  yards  of  surface  is  especially 
helpful.  Most  of  this  may  be  applied  before  planting,  but  ad- 
ditional amounts  of  nitrate  of  soda  may  be  added  in  very  dilute 
solution  in  the  water  applied  to  the  young  plants. 

After  raking  in  the  fertilizer,  preferably  a  week  or  more  before 
planting  the  bed,  the  seed  are  sown  and  the  frame  covered  with 
light  cotton  cloth.  The  purpose  of  the  canvas  covering  is  to 
retain  the  moisture  and  heat  and  hence  to  hasten  germination 
and  growth.  The  cloth  also  keeps  out  some  injurious  insects. 
This  covering  should  be  removed  about  a  week  before  the  plants 
are  to  be  set  in  the  field,  so  that  they  may  become  toughened. 

518.  Sowing  the  seed.  —  The  seed  are  sown  in  January 
or  February,  or,  in  the  cooler  parts  of  the  South,  in  March. 
The  seed  are  first  mixed  with  wood  ashes  or  corn  meal, 
so  that  they  may  be  more  evenly  distributed.  To  further 
insure  uniformity  of  distribution,  half  of  the  seed  are  usually 
sown  broadcast  in  one  direction  over  the  entire  bed,  and 
the  remainder  are  then  sown  crosswise  to  the  direction 
of  the  first  sowing.  The  seed  are  pressed  into  the  soil 
with  a  light  roller  or  by  the  use  of  the  feet,  sometimes 
after  the  surface  has  been  very  lightly  raked,  brushed, 
or  whipped. 

The  quantity  of  seed  varies  greatly  with  different 
growers.  An  amount  frequently  used  is  from  1  to  2 
tablespoonfuls  for  each  100  square  yards  of  tobacco  bed 


532  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

519.  Preparation  of  land.  —  For  tobacco  the  land  should 
be  thoroughly  prepared  a  number  of  weeks  or  even  months 
before  the  plants  are  to  be  set  in  the  field.     The  first 
plowing  is  level  or  broadcast.     Rows  are  opened  at  the 
desired  distance  apart,  the  fertilizer  is  drilled  in  these  and 
mixed  by  the  use  of  some  cultivating  implement.     Then 
a  ridge  or  "  list  "  is  thrown  up  above  the  fertilizer.     The 
details  of  preparation  vary  greatly  in  different  regions, 
the  tobacco  being  sometimes  planted  on  ridges  and  else- 
where practically  on  a  level,  the  "  list  "  which  covered 
the  fertilizer  having  been  first  pulled  down  with  a  harrow 
or  board. 

520.  Distance  between  plants.  —  Practice  varies  greatly 
with  different  types  of  tobacco  and  in  different  regions. 
In  the  dark  tobacco  district  of  Virginia  and  Tennessee, 
the  rows  are  usually  3^  feet  apart  and  the  plants  about 
3  feet  apart  in  the  rows.     On  the  other  hand,   White 
Burley  tobacco  in  Kentucky  stands  nearly  twice  as  thick 
as  this  in  the  row;   while  under  shade  in  Florida,  Cuban 
tobacco  is  set  14  inches  apart  and  Sumatra  tobacco  only 
about  12  inches  apart  in  rows  3^  to  4  feet  apart. 

521.  Setting  or  transplanting.  —  After  the  plants  are 
of  sufficient  size,  all  danger  of  frost  past,  and  the  soil 
thoroughly  warmed,  the  young  plants  are  set  in  the  field 
at  the  desired  distance  apart.     In  Florida,  setting  of  Cuban 
tobacco  should  be  finished  by  the  middle  of  May  and  the 
transplanting  of  Sumatra  tobacco  should  be    completed 
by  the  middle  of  June,  the  bulk  of  each  crop  being  set 
considerably  earlier. 

In  Virginia  the  period  for  setting  plants  extends  from 
the  middle  of  May  to  the  latter  part  of  June      Here  early 


TOBACCO  533 

setting  is  much  preferred,  partly  because,  with  tobacco 
cured  with  little  or  no  artificial  heat,  conditions  are  much 
better  for  curing  the  early  crop  than  for  tobacco  that  ripens 
after  cool  weather  begins. 

Plants  are  usually  ready  to  be  set  in  the  field  9  to  10 
weeks  after  the  sowing  of  the  seed;  or  at  a  shorter  interval 
when  the  seed-bed  is  planted  late. 

Before  removing  the  young  plants  from  the  seed-bed,  the  latter 
is  thoroughly  moistened.  Then  the  young  plants  are  carefully 
lifted,  carried  to  the  field,  and  set  with  the  least  possible  delay. 
Some  Florida  growers  prefer  to  wash  from  the  roots  the  adher- 
ing soil  of  the  plant  bed. 

Setting  of  plants  is  usually  done  by  the  use  of  a  short,  sharp- 
ened stick  or  peg.  For  setting  large  areas,  a  transplanting 
machine  is  advantageously  employed.  This  machine  (Fig.  219), 
manned  by  a  driver  and  by  two  men  to  drop  the  plants,  sets, 
waters,  and  places  soil  around  the  plants  at  one  passage  along  the 
row. 

In  three  or  four  days  after  setting,  or  as  soon  as  the  dying 
plants  can  be  detected,  the  field  should  be  reset. 

522.  Cultivation  or  tillage.  —  About  a  week  after  the 
plants  are  set,  the  field  should  be  tilled.     The  first  culti- 
vation may  be  deep,  if  loosening  of  the  soil  is  rendered 
necessary  by  previous  tramping  while  setting  the  plants 
or  by  the  compacting  of  the  soil  as  the  result  of  heavy 
rains.     All  later  tilling  should  be  shallow  and  repeated  at 
frequent  intervals.    With  shade-grown  tobacco,  cultivation 
is  given  weekly.   Usually  two  hoeings  are  required.    Tillage 
usually  ceases,  especially  in  shade-grown  tobacco,  when 
the  buttons  or  flower  heads  appear  or  when  the  leaves 
become  too  large. 

523.  Topping.  —  This    practice    consists    in    removing 


534 


SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 


TOBACCO  535 

the  main  or  central  flower  bud  together  with  such  a  num- 
ber of  the  upper  leaves  as  will  save,  to  mature  on  the 
plant,  only  the  number  of  leaves  found  best  for  each  va- 
riety of  tobacco  and  for  each  class  of  soil. 

The  object  of  topping  is  (1)  to  increase  the  size  of  the 
remaining  leaves,  by  concentrating  in  them  more  of  the 
elaborated  plant-food ;  (2)  to  make  the  leaves  thicker  and 
of  stronger  quality ;  and  (3)  to  make  the  crop  mature  as 
uniformly  as  possible.  The  general  rule  is  that  the  fewer 
the  leaves  left,  the  larger,  thicker,  and  stronger  in  quality 
will  they  be.  On  the  other  hand,  high  topping  results 
in  leaves  of  reduced  size,  but  having  the  thinness  that  is 
prized  in  cigar  wrappers. 

The  number  of  leaves  left  varies  greatly  among  the  different 
types.  In  heavy  tobacco,  it  is  usually  8  to  10,  in  Burley  at  least 
14,  in  Cuban  at  least  16 ;  in  shade-grown  Sumatra  25  or  more 
leaves  may  be  permitted  to  mature.  With  Sumatra  tobacco, 
grown  under  shade,  topping  is  sometimes  omitted  if  the  land  is 
very  rich,  the  aim  in  this  case  being  to  make  the  leaves  thinner 
than  if  the  plants  were  topped. 

524.  Suckering.  —  Soon  after  the  plants  are  topped, 
branches  or  suckers  grow  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves. 
These  should  be  pinched  or  broken  off  before  they  have 
received  much  of  the  plant's  supply  of  nourishment.     This 
process  of  suckering,  or  removing  of  suckers,  should  be 
done  at  such  frequent  intervals  as  to  prevent  their  reach- 
ing a  length  of  much  more  than  2  inches.     The  object  in 
suckering  is  to  prevent  the  diversion  of  plant-food  and 
growth  into  these  branches  and  to  concentrate  growth 
in  the  best  or  middle  leaves. 

525.  Growing    tobacco    under    shade.  —  It    has    been 


536 


SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 


FIG.  220.  —  YOUNG  TOBACCO  PLANTS  GROWING  UNDER  A  LATH  SHADE 
IN  ALABAMA. 


TOBACCO  537 

found  by  experience  that  tobacco  grown  under  artificial 
shade  affords  the  highest  quality  of  cigar  wrappers  and  the 
largest  proportion  of  leaves  fit  for  this  use.  This  is  the 
common  method  of  growing  Sumatra  and  Cuban  tobacco 
for  cigar  wrappers. 

A  "  shade  "  consists  of  a  field  inclosed  by  a  solid  wooden 
wall  about  9  feet  high,  the  entire  area  of  the  field  being  covered 
at  this  height  with  thin  cotton  cloth  or  with  laths  (Fig.  220). 
The  purpose  is  (1)  to  exclude  a  part  of  the  sunlight,  thereby 
making  the  leaves  thinner,  and  (2)  to  increase  the  amount  of 
moisture  in  the  air  and  the  soil,  the  result  of  which  is  a  luxuriant 
and  rapid  growth.  Shade-grown  tobacco  plants  grow  tall, 
often  standing  9  feet  high.  They  mature  a  large  number  of 
thin  elastic  leaves. 

When  laths  are  used,  they  are  usually  so  arranged  as  to  afford 
half  shade  ;  that  is,  the  space  between  laths  is  equal  to  the  width 
of  a  lath.  The  covering  of  laths  or  cloth  is  supported  by  a 
suitable  framework  of  wood  and  crossed  wires.  The  cost  of 
shading  an  acre  with  laths  is  several  hundred  dollars.  Tobacco 
under  shade  is  more  highly  fertilized  than  is  customary  with 
tobacco  grown  in  the  open,  and  extreme  care  is  taken  to  make 
all  conditions  of  preparation,  fertilization,  and  cultivation  favor- 
able to  rapid  growth.  The  result  is  a  large  proportion  of  leaves 
free  from  any  blemish,  and  possessing  the  size  and  quality  to 
command  the  highest  price  that  is  paid  for  any  American  tobacco. 

526.  Place  of  tobacco  in  the  rotation.  —  The  following 
six-year  rotation  is  recommended  in  Bulletin  No.  165  of 
the  Virginia  Experiment  Station  for  tobacco  fields  in  the 
dark-tobacco  district  of  Virginia. 

First  year:  tobacco. 

Second  year:  wheat. 

Third  and  fourth  years:  mixed  grasses  and  clover. 

Fifth  year:  corn. 

Sixth  year:  cowpeas. 


538  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS 

This  brings  tobacco  immediately  after  cowpeas,  after 
which  the  rotation  is  repeated. 

In  the  limestone  region  of  Kentucky  the  best  position  for 
tobacco  is  believed  to  be  after  a  blue-grass  sod,  which  supplies 
the  necessary  vegetable  matter.  Tobacco  is  then  grown  two 
years.  It  is  followed  by  wheat,  in  which  is  sown  a  mixture  of 
the  seeds  of  clover,  timothy,  and  blue-grass,  with  a  view  to  again 
getting  the  field,  after  a  few  years,  into  blue-grass.  For  the 
same  region  the  following  four-year  rotation  has  been  suggested, 
where  it  is  not  practicable  for  tobacco  to  follow  blue-grass :  — 

First  year :   tobacco. 

Second  year  :  wheat  with  grass  seed. 

Third  year  :   clover  and  timothy. 

Fourth  year :   clover  and  timothy. 

In  the  bright-tobacco  districts  of  North  Carolina  a  good 
plant  to  furnish  the  necessary  vegetable  matter  and  nitrogen  is 
crimson  clover,  which  may  enter  the  rotation  as  a  catch  crop 
after  cotton  or  corn  and  either  immediately  before,  or  a  year 
preceding,  the  time  when  tobacco  is  to  occupy  the  field. 

HARVESTING  AND  CURING 

527.  Indications  of  maturity.  —  Tobacco  will  usually 
be  ready  for  harvesting  in  three  to  three  and  a  half 
months  after  the  plants  are  set,  or  somewhat  more  than 
a  month  after  the  date  of  topping.  The  ripening  of  to- 
bacco is  shown  by  the  following  symptoms :  (1)  The 
leaves  change  from  a  deep  green  to  a  lighter  shade  of  green, 
with  a  faint  tendency  to  yellowing  or  to  yellowish  mottling. 

(2)  The  leaf  tends  to  crumple,  especially  along  the  edge. 

(3)  The  leaf  veins  become  quite  brittle,  so  that  when  the 
leaf  is  folded  between  the  fingers,  a  clear,  distinct  break 
is  made.     (4)  The  leaf  becomes  heavier  and  somewhat 
less  smooth  to  the  touch. 


TOBACCO  539 

528.  Two  methods  of  harvesting.  —  The  two  methods 
of  harvesting  are  (1)  priming,  that  is,  removing  the  leaves 
separately,  and  (2)  cutting  the  stalks.     While  the  object 
of  topping  is  largely  to  cause  the  remaining  leaves  to  ripen 
more  nearly  together,  yet  they  will  not  all  arrive  at  the  best 
stage  lor  harvesting  on  the  same  date.     On  account  of 
this  difference  in  the  time  of  ripening  of  the  leaves  on  the 
same  plant,   it  has  become   customary,   especially  with 
high-priced    tobacco,    to    harvest    each    leaf    separately, 
priming  it,  or  going  over  the  field  several  different  times. 

The  other  method  of  harvesting  consists  in  cutting  the 
entire  stalk  with  the  attached  leaves.  The  stalk  is  then 
split  from  the  top  to  near  the  base,  and  6  to  10  of  the  split 
plants  are  then  straddled  over  a  split  stick  or  lath,  or 
otherwise  strung  on  a  stick  which  is  about  4^-  feet  long. 
The  plants  are  then  allowed  to  wilt  slightly,  taking  care 
that  they  are  not  injured  by  too  much  exposure  to  the 
sun.  After  wilting  they  are  hung  for  a  few  days  on  a 
scaffold  in  the  field,  and  later  carried  to  the  curing  barn ; 
or  they  are  taken  directly  from  the  field  to  the  barn, 
where  they  are  to  be  cured. 

When  the  leaves  are  harvested  separately,  or  primed, 
they  are  strung  on  wires  or  strings,  being  arranged  in 
pairs  with  the  upper  surfaces  facing  each  other,  so  as  to 
prevent  excessive  crumpling. 

529.  Methods   of  curing.  —  Methods  of  curing  differ 
widely,  varying  with  the  type  of  tobacco  and  with  other 
conditions.     They  may  be  divided  into  (1)  curing  with 
open  fires;    (2)  flue-curing;  and  (3)  air-curing.     Special 
barns  are  built  to  suit  the  method  of  curing.     Those  in- 
tended for  the  flue-curing  process  are  supplied  with  ven- 


540  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

tilators  in  the  top,  with  a  furnace,  and  with  flues  of  terra- 
cotta or  other  suitable  material  for  conveying  the  heat 
through  the  barn.  Structures  in  which  air-curing  is  to 
be  done  should  have  numerous  ventilators  on  two 
sides. 

All  curing  barns  are  supplied  with  the  necessary  in- 
terior framing  to  support  the  sticks  on  which  the  tobacco 
is  hung. 

Fire-curing. —  The  method  practiced  in  the  dark-tobacco  dis- 
trict of  south-central  Virginia  is  thus  described  in  Bulletin  No. 
175  of  the  Virginia  Experiment  Station  :  — 

"  The  yellowing  stage  is  the  first  step  in  the  curing  process. 
The  change  to  yellow  is  caused  by  a  breaking  down  of  the  green 
chlorophyll  granules  during  the  first  few  days  after  the  plant  is 
cut.  The  riper  the  tobacco,  the  more  quickly  will  this  change 
take  place.  Therefore,  to  yellow  uniformly,  the  plants  should 
be  cut  as  nearly  as  possible  at  a  uniform  stage  of  ripeness.  This 
change  in  the  leaf  is  favored  and  hastened  by  a  gentle  warmth 
(about  90°  F.),  by  moderate  moisture,  and  by  dampness.  It  is 
not  customary  to  use  artificial  heat  in  yellowing  this  type  of 
tobacco,  especially  with  early-cut  tobacco.  .  .  . 

"  The  next  change  that  takes  place  in  the  leaf  is  from  the  yellow 
to  the  brown  stage,  and  for  this  purpose  artificial  heat  is  used.  .  . 
The  first  fires  built  under  this  tobacco  should  be  very  small  to 
avoid  danger  of  premature  drying  of  the  tips  of  any  of  the  leaves 
not  yet  fully  yellowed.  The  temperature  should  not  be  raised 
above  95°  F.  or  100°  F.  at  this  first  firing,  and  should  be  main- 
tained only  long  enough  to  dry  out  the  surface  moisture  and  start 
the  tips  of  the  leaves,  already  well  yellowed,  to  turn  brown.  A 
few  hours  at  this  time  will  generally  be  sufficient.  .  .  .  This 
process  should  be  repeated  every  few  days  until  all  the  gum 
has  disappeared  from  the  leaf  and  the  tips  of  the  leaves  have 
begun  to  take  on  the  brown  color.  After  these  conditions  have 
been  attained,  a  somewhat  higher  temperature  may  be  used 
safely  if  the  moisture  supply  is  sufficient  not  to  result  in  the  dry- 


TOBACCO  541 

ing  of  the  leaf  before  the  color  changes  have  taken  place.  It 
will  not  usually  be  found  desirable  for  the  temperature  to  rise 
above  125°  F.  for  any  length  of  time.  .  .  .  After  the  barn  has 
been  fired  three  or  four  times,  the  leaf  will  require  no  further 
attention,  until  it  is  desired  to  take  the  tobacco  down,  perhaps 
several  weeks  later. 

"  As  a  general  principle,  to  cure  tobacco  light  it  should  be 
spread  thinly  in  the  barn  and  enough  fires  used  to  cause  a  quick 
cure  without  drying  the  leaf  too  rapidly.  To  darken  or  blacken 
tobacco,  the  principle  is  to  delay  the  cure  and  not  to  dry  off 
excessive  moisture  faster  than  is  necessary  to  prevent  actual 
damage.  .  .  .  Tobacco  once  darkened  cannot  be  lightened 
again ;  it  is  possible  for  the  manufacturer  to  take  light  tobacco 
and  darken  it." 

530.  Flue-curing.  —  Most    of    the    bright    tobacco    of 
North   Carolina   and   Virginia  is  flue-cured  in   specially 
constructed  barns,   the  process  requiring  only  three  or 
four  days. 

"  As  soon  as  the  barn  is  filled  with  tobacco,  fires  should  be 
started,  and  the  temperature  raised  to  90°  F.,  where  it  should 
remain  for  24  to  30  hours,  during  which  time  the  tobacco  becomes 
a  uniformly  bright  yellow.  Then  the  temperature  is  raised  from 
90°  to  120°  F.,  from  15  to  20  hours.  This  process  is  commonly 
known  as  '  fixing  the  color.'  The  temperature  may  then  be 
increased  gradually  to  125°  F.,  at  which  point  it  should  be  main- 
tained for  about  48  hours.  By  this  time  the  leaves  should  be 
almost,  if  not  entirely,  yellow,  but  the  stalk  will  still  be  green. 
In  order  to  cure  the  stalk,  the  'temperature  can  be  raised  to 
175°  F.,  at  the  rate  of  5°  an  hour,  where  it  should  remain  until 
the  stalks  are  thoroughly  dried."  —  A.  D.  SHAMEL  in  Bailey's 
"Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture,"  Vol.  II,  p.  652. 

531.  The  air-curing  of  Cuban  cigar  tobacco  in  Florida.  — 
Most  Sumatra  and  Cuban  cigar  tobacco  is  subjected  to 
air-curing,  as  are  also  many  other  types,  including  White 


542  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

Burley.     The  curing  of  Cuban  cigar  tobacco  in  Florida 
is  thus  described  :  — 

"  When  the  tobacco  is  primed  from  the  stalk,  it  should  not 
take  longer  than  two  weeks  to  cure  ;  when  hung  on  the  stalks, 
three  or  four  weeks  are  necessary.  ...  In  a  general  way  it 
may  be  said  that  if  a  barn  is  filled  with  green  tobacco,  and  the 
weather  is  hot  and  dry,  the  ventilators  should  be  tightly  closed 
for  about  three  days,  by  which  time  the  tobacco  will  be  quite 
yellow.  The  barn  should  then  be  opened  at  night  and  kept 
closed  during  the  day.  This  is  done  to  prevent  rapid  curing, 
as  rapid  curing  destroys  the  life  of  the  leaf  and  gives  uneven 
colors.  If  there  are  frequent  showers,  and  but  little  sunshine, 
the  barn  should  be  closed  and  the  fires  started  in  small  charcoal 
heaters  distributed  throughout  the  barn.  These  fires  should 
be  continued  as  long  as  is  necessary  to  keep  the  barn  in  proper 
condition.  Where  the  charcoal  heaters  are  not  available,  wood, 
which  has  little  odor  and  as  little  smoke  as  possible,  should  be 
used.  ...  To  obtain  the  best  results,  the  tobacco  should  be- 
come fairly  moist  and  be  fairly  dried  out  once  in  every  24  hours. 
41  When  the  stems  of  the  leaves  are  thoroughly  cured,  they  are 
ready  to  be  taken  to  the  packing  house.  To  get  the  tobacco  in 
a  condition  to  be  handled,  all  of  the  places  for  ventilation  are 
left  open  for  one  night.  The  next  morning  the  tobacco  will 
be  in  what  is  called  '  good  case  '  ;  that  is,  it  will  have  taken  up 
moisture  and  become  soft  and  pliable.  The  barn  is  then  tightly 
closed  in  order  to  retain  the  moisture.  The  tobacco  is  taken 
from  the  poles  and  stripped  from  the  stalk  or  taken  from  the 
string,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  is  packed  in  bundles  that  weigh 
from  35  to  40  pounds  and  delivered  to  the  packing  house  as 
quickly  as  possible." — M.  L.  FLOYD  in  Report  No.  62,  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agr. 

532.  General  remarks  on  curing  tobacco.  —  The  meth- 
ods of  curing  are  so  different  in  each  section  that  no  writ- 
ten directions  will  alone  suffice.  Tobacco  curing  is  a  matter 
of  local  experience.  Whatever  the  method  employed,  it  is 


TOBACCO 


543 


usually  advantageous  to  fill  the  barn  promptly  so  that  all 
of  the  tobacco  may  at  the  same  time  reach  a  similar  stage 
in  the  curing  process.  The  changes  brought  about  in  the 
curing  and  subsequent  fermentation  of  tobacco  are  largely 
the  result  of  chemical  ferments  or  enzymes. 

533.  Further  treatment  on  the  farm.  —  After  curing  is 
completed,  tobacco  cured  on  the  stalk  must  be  stripped 
from  the  stalk,  and  the 

leaves  tied  into  bundles, 
after  great  pains  have 
been  taken  to  assort  them 
into  their  different  grades, 
which  are  usually  four  or 
five  in  number. 

Subsequent  treatment 
of  tobacco,  including  sev- 
eral steps  in  the  ferment- 
ing of  certain  types,  are 
usually  performed  in  the 
factory,  and  hence  are 
not  discussed  here. 

534.  Yields  and  prices. 
—  A  fair  yield  of  cured 

tobacco  in  the  dark-tobacco  district  of  Virginia  is  800 
pounds  or  more  per  acre.  The  same  figure  represents 
somewhat  above  the  average  yield  of  the  bright-tobacco 
region  of  North  Carolina.  In  Kentucky  a  good  yield 
of  Burley  tobacco  is  from  1000  to  1500  pounds  per  acre. 
In  Florida,  shade-grown  Cuban  or  Sumatra  tobacco  is 
expected  to  yield  between  1200  and  2000  pounds  per 
acre. 


FIG.  221.  —  DIAGRAM  SHOWING  THAT 
BROAD  TOBACCO  LEAVES  AFFORD  A 
MUCH  LARGER  NUMBER  OF  WRAPPERS 
THAN  DO  NARROW  LEAVES. 


544  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

Prices  are  highest  for  the  best  grades  of  cigar  wrappers, 
the  farmer  frequently  receiving  for  such  tobacco  40  cents 
to  one  dollar  or  more  per  pound,  and  the  finished  wrappers 
after  proper  treatment  in  the  factory  selling  for  several 
dollars  per  pound.  However,  by  no  means  all  of  the  crop 
of  shade-grown  tobacco  consists  of  high-grade  wrappers. 

The  coarser  and  heavier  the  type  or  grade  of  tobacco, 
the  lower,  as  a  rule,  is  the  price.  The  price  of  tobacco 
has  fluctuated  widely  in  recent  years. 

ENEMIES 

535.  Diseases.  —  A    number    of    diseases    attack    the 
tobacco  plant.     Among  them  are  wilt  and  the  mosaic 
disease.     Rotation  of  crops  and  disinfection  of  the  seed- 
beds are  the  most  common  methods  of   combating   the 
diseases  of  tobacco. 

536.  Insect  enemies.  —  Among  the  insect  enemies  of 
this  plant  are  the  tobacco  worm  (Fig.  222),  the  budworm, 
cut-worms,  and  wire-worms.    The  nematode  worm  attacks 
the  roots  of  tobacco  plants.      The  methods  of  combating 
this  pest,  including  rotations,  are  discussed  in  paragraph 
385. 

For  the  Southern  tobacco  worm  (Protoparce  Carolina) 
dusting  or  spraying  with  Paris  green  in  very  dilute  form 
is  employed.  In  addition,  the  plants  must  be  "  wormed  " 
every  few  days;  that  is,  examined  for  the  purpose  of 
killing  any  insects  and  eggs  that  may  be  found. 

Paris  green,  diluted  with  some  dry  material,  is  dusted  on  the 
buds  or  young  leaves  as  a  means  of  destroying  the  budworms. 

Cut-worms  are  combated  by  the  use  of  poisoned  bait  placed 
in  the  field  before  the  plants  are  set. 


TOBACCO 


545 


The  wire-worm  (Chambus  caliginosellus)  is  injurious  to  to- 
bacco plants  in  the  Virginia  tobacco  fields.  It  is  especially 
abundant  on  fields  which  have  recently  grown  up  in  weeds.  The 
means  of  reducing  the  amount  of  injury  consists  in  preventing 
the  growth  of  weeds,  especially  of  the  Iron  weed  (Vernonia),  in 
fields  where  tobacco  is  soon  to  be  grown.  In  case  this  weed  is 


FIG.  222.  —  SOUTHERN  TOBACCO  WORM. 
a,  adult  moth  ;  6,  full-grown  larva ;  c,  pupa. 

present,  it  is  recommended  that  instead  of  plowing  it  under  it 
should  be  mowed  and  burned.  By  setting  tobacco  very  late, 
this  enemy  is  largely  avoided,  but  the  yield  of  tobacco  is  reduced. 

LABORATORY  EXERCIS    S 

In  high  schools  located  in  regions  where  tobacco  is  not  an 

important  crop,  it  will  usually  be  advisable  to  omit  this  chapter. 

The  fact  that  the  tobacco  plant  makes  most  of  its  growth 

2N 


546  SOUTHERN  FIELD   CROPS 

during  the  period  of  school  vacation  renders  it  difficult  to  arrange 
for  a  comprehensive  line  of  exercises  on  this  plant.  However, 
in  regions  where  this  is  an  important  crop,  it  may  be  practicable 
for  pupils  to  prepare  and  plant  a  small  tobacco  bed  and  to  par- 
ticipate in  the  cultural  operations  connected  with  the  early 
growth  of  the  young  plants. 

Seeds  of  tobacco  should  be  examined  and  germinated  by  plant- 
ing a  definite  number  of  seeds  by  different  methods,  some  on 
the  surface,  some  in  the  shallowest  possible  furrows,  and  some 
in  furrows  about  half  an  inch  deep.  From  the  results  students 
should  write  conclusions  as  to  the  best  depth  for  planting  seed. 

LITERATURE 

KILLEBREW,  J.  B.,  and  MYRICK,  H.     The  Tobacco  Leaf.     New 

York. 
KILLEBREW,  J.  B.     The  Culture. and  Curing  of  Tobacco  in  the 

United  States.     Tenth  U.  S.  Census  (1880),  Agriculture. 
BONDURANT,  A.  J.     Tobacco.     Ala.  Expr.  Sta.,  Bui.  No.  64. 
WHITNEY,   MILTON.     Tobacco   Soils  of  United   States.     U.   S. 

Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Soils,  No.  11. 
FLOYD,  M.  L.     Cultivation   of   Cigar-leaf  Tobacco  in  Florida. 

U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Report  No.  62. 
McNEss,  G.  T.,  and  AYRES,  L.  W.     Experiments  in  Growing 

Cuban  Seed  Tobacco  in  Texas  and  Alabama.     U.  S.  Dept. 

Agr.,  Bur.  Soils,  Buls.  Nos.  27  and  37. 

SCHULTE,    J.    I.     The    Work    of    the   Agricultural    Experiment 

'  Stations  on  Tobacco.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Report  No.  63. 

McNEss,  G.  T.,  and  others.     The  Improvement  of  Fire-cured 

Tobacco.     Va.   Expr.   Sta.,   Bui.   No.   166. 
DAVIDSON,  R.  J.      [Chemical  Composition    of    Tobacco.]     Va. 

Expr.  Sta.,  Buls.  Nos.  14,  50,  51. 
CARPENTER,  F.  B.     [Chemical  Composition  of  Tobacco.]     N.  C. 

Expr.   Sta.,  Buls.  Nos.  90  A  and  122. 
LEE,  J.  G.     La!  Expr.  Sta.,  Buls.  Nos.  20,  25,  33. 
GARMAN,  H.,  and  others.      Ky.   Expr.  Sta.,  Buls.  Nos.  28,  45, 

55,  63,  66,  and  129. 


TO  HA  ceo  547 

SCHERFFIUS,  W.  H.,  and  others.     The  Cultivation  of  Tobacco 

in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.     U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmer's 

Bui.  No.  343. 
HARPER,   J.   N.     Syllabus  of   Illustrated   Lecture   on   Tobacco 

Growing.     U.   S.   Dept.  Agr.,  Office  Expr.   Sta.,  Farmers' 

Institute  Lecture  9. 
SHAMEL,  A.  D.,  and  COBEY,  W.  W.    Varieties  of  Tobacco.    U.  S. 

Dept.  Agr.,  Bur.  Plant  Ind.,  Buls.  Nos.  91  and  96. 
WHITNEY,  MILTON.     Methods  of  Curing  Tobacco.     U.  S.  Dept. 

Agr.,  Farmer's  Bui.  No.  60. 
LOEW,  OSCAR.     Curing  and  Fermentation  of  Cigar-leaf  Tobacco. 

U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Report  No.  59. 
SHAMEL,  A.   D.     Tobacco.     Bailey's  Cyclo.   Agr.,  Vol.   II,  pp 

639-653. 


GLOSSARY 

Acid  phosphate.     A  fertilizer  usually  containing  12  to  18  per 

cent  of  available  phosphoric  acid ;    it  is  made  by  treating 

ground  rock  phosphate  with  sulfuric  acid. 

Alabama  argillacea.     The  scientific  name  of  the  cotton  caterpillar. 
Aleurone  layer.     The  thin  layer  just  below  the  seed-coats  and 

constituting  a  part  of  the  endosperm  of  the  seed. 
Amides.     Organic  compounds  rich  in  nitrogen,  but  not  serving 

all  the  uses  of  certain  other  forms  of  protein. 
Analysis.     Statement  of  chemical  composition. 
Andropogon  sorghum.     The  scientific  name  of  all  the  sorghums, 

including  sweet  sorghum,  kafir,  and  milo. 
Angoumois  moth.     The  larvae  of  this  insect  is  a  serious  pest  of 

wheat  and  corn  grain. 
Anthers.     Pollen  cases. 
Anthronomus    grandis.     The    scientific    name    of    the    Mexican 

cotton  boll  weevil. 
Aphids.     Small  insects,  usually  called  plant  lice,  injuring  young 

cotton  and  other  plants. 

Arachis  hypogea.     The  scientific  name  of  the  peanut  plant. 
Ash.     Ashes,   or  the  incombustible  mineral  residue  left  after 

burning  vegetable  or  animal  matter. 

Auricle.     Clasps,  or  small  projections  where  leaf-blade  and  leaf- 
sheath  unite. 
Axil  of  the  leaf.     The  angle  between  the  leaf  and  the  stem  from 

which  it  springs. 

Back-furrowing.     That  form  of  plowing  in  which  successive  pairs 

of  furrow  slices  are  thrown  toward  each  other. 
Bacteria.     Minute  vegetable  organisms,   some  of  which  cause 

certain  diseases  of  plants  and  animals. 
Bagasse.     The  refuse  or  crushed  stalk  of  sugar-cane  or  sorghum 

after  the  juice  is  pressed  out. 

Bagging.     The  common  cloth  covering  around  cotton  bales. 
Bake.     To  form  a  crust  or  clod. 

Balk.     A  narrow  unplowed  strip  of  ground  between  rows. 
Barring-off.     Throwing  the  earth  away  from  a  line  of  plants  by 

using  a  turn-plow, 

549 


550  GLOSSARY 

Beam.     That  part  of  the  plow  to  the  front  end  of  which  the  team 

is  attached. 
Beards.     Long,  stiff  bristles  projecting  from  the  hull  of  certain 

seeds. 
Bedding.     The  act  of  so  plowing  land  as  to  form  considerable 

ridges,  or  elevated  beds. 
Benders.     A  commercial  term  for  cotton  fiber  intermediate  in 

length  between  short-staple  and  long-staple  lint ;    so  called 

because  it  is  largely  grown  on  the  bottom  land  in  the  bends 

made  by  rivers. 

Bin.     A  tight  storage  place  for  threshed  grain. 
Binder,  or  self-binder.     A  machine  for  cutting  and  tying  grain 

plants  into  bundles. 
Blade.     See  leaf-blade. 
Blissus  leucopterus.     The  scientific  name  of  the  chinch  bug  of 

the  fields. 

Bluestone.     See  copper  sulfate. 

Boll.     The  pod  within  which  cotton  seed  and  lint  develop. 
Brace-roots.     Roots  of  the  corn  plant  originating  at  a  node  above 

ground.     See  p.  82. 
Bracts.     In  the  cotton  plant  the  three  leaf-like  parts  that  closely 

inclose  the  bud,  bloom,  or  boll. 
Branching  wheat.     See  p.  40. 

Bristles.     Minute  hairs,  as  at  the  base  of  a  spikelet  of  oats. 
Broadcast.     Scattered,  not  sown  in  drills. 
Budworm.     See  p.  206. 

Bur  (of  cotton).     The  hull  of  the  open  boll. 
Butt.     The  end  of  the  corn  ear  near  the  point  of  attachment. 

Calcium  sulfate.     A  chemical  combination  of  lime  and  sulfuric 

acid.     Gypsum   or   land    plaster   is    nearly    pure    calcium 

sulfate. 
Calcodermis   ceneus.     The   scientific   name    of    the   cowpea-pod 

weevil. 
Callandra  oryza.     The  scientific  name  of  the  weevil  that  is  most 

destructive  to  corn. 
Canthook.     A  short  pole  with  a  hook  attached  used  in  handling 

logs. 
Capillary  attraction.     The  force  that  causes  moisture  in  the  soil 

to  move  toward  the  surface  or  toward  the  dryer  part  of  the 

soil. 
Capped.     Covered,  as  with  an  extra  bundle  of  grain  placed  on 

top  of  a  shock  of  sheaf-grain. 

Carbon  dioxid.     Carbonic  acid  gas ;    a  gas  existing  in  the  at- 
mosphere  and   used   by   plants.     It   consists   of   one   part 

carbon  and  two  parts  oxygen. 


GLOSSARY  551 

Carbon  disulfide.     A  liquid  which  readily  turns  to  a  vapor  that 

is  fatal  to  insect  life. 
Cereal.     Any  edible  grain. 

Chaff.     The  inclosing  portion  of  the  wheat  flower  that  is   re- 
moved from  the  grain  in  threshing. 
Cheat.     An  annual  grass  that  is  a  serious  weed  in  fields  of  wheat 

and  oats. 
Check-rower.     A  planter  by  the  use  of  which  corn  can  be  planted 

in  checks.     See  Fig.  88. 
Chess.     See  cheat. 
Chinch  bug.     An  insect  attacking  corn,  wheat,  and  other  plants ; 

it  is  entirely  unlike  the  household  pest  of  the  same  name. 
Chit.     The  germ  or  heart  of  the  grain,  as  in  the  corn  kernel. 
Chrysalis.     The  pupal  or  changing  stage  of  certain  insects. 
Clasps.     See  auricles. 

Club  wheat.     A  class  of  wheat  plants  distinguished  by  the  club- 
shaped  head,  which  is  largest  at  the  upper  end. 
Cockle.     An  annual  weed  with  large  pink  flowers. 
Colletotrichum  gossypii.     The  scientific  name  of  cotton  anthrac- 

nose,  which  is  the  most  common  form  of  boll  rot. 
Compresses.     Establishments  where  bales  of  cotton  are  again 

pressed  and  made  denser  and  smaller. 
Convolvulacece.     The   name  of  the  family   to  which  the  sweet 

potato  belongs. 

Copper  sulf ate.  A  chemical  combination  of  copper,  sulfur,  and  oxy- 
gen useful  for  destroying  the  germs  of  many  plant  diseases. 
Corn  binder  or  harvester.     See  pp.  198  and  199. 
Corn  blades.     See  p.  99. 
Corn  stover.     See  p.  99. 
Cotton,  absorbent.     Cotton  fiber  so  prepared  by  chemicals  as 

to  be  able  to  absorb  much  water ;  absorbent  cotton  is  largely 

used  in  medicine  and  surgery. 
Cotton  caterpillar.     A  caterpillar  formerly  very  destructive  to 

the  leaves  of  cotton;    it  was  often  inaccurately  called  the 

army  worm. 
Cotton-seed  meal.     The  meal  made  from  cotton  seed  after  the 

oil  is  pressed  out. 
Cotton  "square."     The  young  bud  of  the  cotton  flower,  with  its 

three  surroundings  leafy  bracts. 
Coulter,  rolling.     A  revolving  disk  attached  to  the  beam  of  a 

plow  in  order  to  cut  the  soil  or  the  vegetation  on  it.      See 

Fig.  195. 
Cowpeas.     A  soil-improving  forage  plant,  often  called  "peas," 

or  "field  peas." 
Crease.     The  depression  or  furrow  on  one  side  of  a  grain  of  wheat 

or  rye. 


552  GLOSSARY 

Crossing.     Hybridizing,  or  transferring  pollen  to  the  stigmas  of 

a  different  plant,  variety,  or  species. 
Crown.     That  part  of  certain  plants,  as  grains  and  grasses,  from 

which  a  number  of  stems  spring. 
Crude  fiber.     The  woody  portion  of  plants. 
Culms.     Stems  or  erect  branches. 
Current  cross.    Immediate  hybridization,  as  shown  in  the  hybrid 

seeds  developed  in  the  same  season  in  which  impregnation 

occurs. 
Cylas  formicarius.     The   scientific   name   of   the   sweet-potato 

root-borer. 

Delinters.  Used  on  p.  383  for  establishments,  such  as  cotton-oil 
mills,  which  delint  cotton  seed,  that  is,  subject  them  to  a 
second  ginning. 

Delta  Region.  A  region  in  the  western  part  of  Mississippi,  con- 
sisting of  rich  river  bottom  land. 

Diabrotica  12-punctata.  The  scientific  name  of  the  bud  worm, 
an  insect  attacking  the  stem  of  very  young  corn  plants. 

Dibble.  A  small  implement  or  sharpened  stick  for  making  holes 
in  the  ground. 

Diplodia.  The  name  of  a  genus  of  fungi  causing  some  of  the 
rotting  of  corn  ears. 

Diplosis  sorghicola.  The  scientific  name  of  the  minute  insect 
which  destroys  the  seeds  of  the  sorghums,  and  which  is 
largely  responsible  for  the  failure  of  the  crop  of  sorghum 
seed  in  the  humid  regions  of  the  South. 

Disinfection.  Destruction  of  the  germs  of  disease,  usually  by 
treatment  with  chemicals  or  with  heat. 

Disked.     Tilled  with  a  disk-plow  or  disk-harrow. 

Disk-harrow.  A  harrow  consisting  of  a  number  of  circular  con- 
cave disks. 

Disk-plow.  A  plow  in  which  the  work  of  cutting  and  inverting 
the  soil  is  done  by  a  large,  concave,  circular  disk  which  re- 
volves. The  supporting  framework  for  the  disk  is  shown 
in  Fig.  80. 

Dolochonyx  oryzivorus.  The  scientific  name  of  the  rice  bird  or 
bobolink. 

Dominant  quality.  That  one  of  a  pair  of  contrasted  qualities  which 
shows  in  the  larger  proportion  of  the  offspring.  See  p.  143. 

Double  fertilization.  That  process  occurring  in  the  impregna- 
tion of  some  plants  by  which  the  pollen  influences  not  only 
the  germ  of  the  seed,  but  also  the  endosperm. 

Dough  stage.  The  stage  of  a  maturing  grain  when  the  seed  is 
in  the  stage  of  firmness  represented  by  dough. 

Ducts.  The  channels  through  which  the  crude  sap  of  plants 
circulates. 


GLOSSARY  55S 

Einkorn.     The  German  word  for  "one  grain"  ;   the  name  of  one 

kind  of  wheat. 
Elementary  species.     Groups  of  similar  plants ;  often  subdivisions 

of  what  has  generally  been  assumed  to  be  one  variety. 
Embryo.     The  germ  of  the  seed  or  grain. 
Embryo-sac.     A  part  of  the  ovary  which  incloses  the  female 

germ  cell. 

Emmer.     A  kind  of  wheat.     See  p.  40. 

Endosperm.     The  part  of  the  grain  or  seed  around  the  germ. 
Entomologists.     Persons  skilled  in  the  knowledge  of  insects. 
Environment  (of  plants).     Surrounding  conditions,  for  example, 

soil,  rainfall,  fertilizer,  distance  between  plants. 

Fertilization  of  corn  grain.     The  act  or  fact  of  union  of  the  male 

and  female  elements ;   the  usual  result  of  pollination. 
Fibrous-rooted.     Having  numerous  fine  roots  without  a  tap-root. 
Firing.     The  premature  drying  of  leaves  on  growing  plants. 
"Flaxseed."     The  name  given  to  the  pupal  stage  of  the  Hessian 

fly. 

Floats.     See  raw  phosphate. 

Floret.     A  flower. 

Flush    plowing,    or    flushing.     Plowing   land    without    forming 

ridges  or  deep  depressions;    "broadcast"  plowing. 
"Fodder."     A  term  often  applied  in  the  South  to  corn  blades  or 

leaves.     See  p.  99. 
Forage.     Coarse  food  for  live-stock ;  forage  plants  are  those  that 

afford  pasturage,  hay,  etc. 
Forceps.     Pincers. 
Formalin.     A  liquid   consisting   of   water   in   which   has   been 

dissolved  a  pungent  disinfecting  gas,  formaldehyde.     This 

liquid  readily  evaporates,  and  the  fumes  destroy  germs. 
Friable.     Easily  crumbled. 
Fruit  limbs  or  branches.     On  the  cotton  plant  those  branches 

on  which  boll  stems  are  directly  borne.     See  p.  250. 
Fungous.     The  adjective  derived  from  fungus. 
Fung'us,  plural  fiin'gi.     A  class  of  vegetable  organisms  having  no 

green  coloring  matter,  and  including  the  rusts,  smuts,  and 

most  other  plant  diseases. 
Fusarium.     The  name  of  a  class  of  fungi,  some  of  which  cause 

a  part  of  the  rotting  of  corn  ears. 

Galechia  cerealella.     See  grain  moths. 

Galled  spots.     Areas  of  soil  which  have  been  impoverished  by 

the  washing  away  of  the  surface  soil. 

Garlic,  wild.     A  small  onion  growing  wild  ;  a  troublesome  weed, 
Genus.     A  group  of  closely  related  species  of  plants. 
Germination.     The  act  of  sprouting,  as  with  seeds. 


554  GLOSSARY 

Germination-box.     A  box  in  which  seeds  are  sprouted  to  deter- 
mine the  proportion  of  seeds  able  to  grow.     See  p.  138. 
Ginnery.     The    building,    including    the    equipment,    in    which 

cotton  is  ginned. 
Gloeosporium  manihot.      The  scientific  name  of  the  fungus  causing 

the  "Frenching"  disease  of  cassava. 
Glucose.     A  non-crystallizable  form  of  sugar. 
Gluten.     See  p.   39. 
Gossypium.     The  scientific  name  of  the  genus  that  includes  all 

kinds  of  wild  and  cultivated  cotton  plants. 
Gossypium  arboreum.     The  scientific  name  of  a  group  of  cottons 

largely  grown  in  India. 
Gossypium  barbadense.     The  scientific  name  indicating  first  the 

genus  and  next  the  species  of  Sea  Island  cotton. 
Gossypium   hirsutum.     The   scientific   name   of   the   genus   and 

species  of  American  upland  short  staple  and  American  long 

staple  cotton. 
Gossypium  obtusifolium.     The  scientific  name  of  one  group  of 

cottons  grown  largely  in  India. 
Gossypium   peruvianum.     The   scientific   name   of  a   species   of 

cotton  supposed  to  have  originated  in  Peru  and  largely 

cultivated  in  Egypt. 
Grain  drills.     Implements  for  sowing  grain  and  other  seed  in 

narrow  rows. 
Grain  moths.     Several  small  moths,  the  larvsB  of  which  attack 

wheat,  corn,  and  other  grain. 

Graminece.     The  botanical  name  of  the  grass  family. 
Granary.     A  place  or  bin  for  storing  grain. 
"Green-bug."     A  small  plant-louse  injuring  grain  plants. 
Guano  horn.     A  cheap  metal  tube  with  a  funnel  at  the  upper  end, 

used  in  the  application  of  fertilizer  by  hand. 

Head  rice-.     Prepared  rice  of  the  highest  grade. 

Heaving.     Lifting  of  plants  and  soil  as  the  result  of  freezing  of 

the  soil. 
Heliothis  obsoleta.     The  scientific  name  of  the  corn  ear-worm  and 

cotton  boll-worm. 
Hessian  fly.     See  p.  62. 
Hopper-dozers.     Devices  to  be  pulled  through  fields  for  catching 

grasshoppers.     An  essential  feature  is  a  vertical  cloth,  which 

the  flying  grasshoppers  strike  and  thence  fall  into  a  large 

pan  containing  ke'rosene,  which  kills  them. 
Hulls,  oat.     The  part  of  the  oat  grain  which  tightly  enfolds  the 

kernel. 
Humus.     Partly   decayed   vegetable  or  animal   matter  in   the 

soil. 


GLOSSARY  555 

Hybridized.     Crossed. 

Impregnation.     See  fertilization. 

Internodes.     That  part  of  a  stem  lying  between  two  nodes  or 

joints. 

Intertillage.     Cultivation  among  growing  plants. 
Ipomaea  batatas.     The  scientific  name  of  the  sweet-potato  plant. 

Johnson-grass.     A  perennial  grass,  difficult  to  eradicate. 

Kernel.     In  common  usage,  a  grain  or  seed. 
Kiln.     A  term  usually  applied  to  a  house  or  room  in  which  some 
article  is  to  be  dried  by  artificial  heat. 

Lady-beetle.     See  lady-bug. 

Lady-bug.  A  group  of  small  beetles,  many  of  them  preying  on 
harmful  insects. 

Land  plaster.  An  impure  form  of  sulfate  of  lime.  It  is  some- 
times bought  as  a  fertilizer ;  it  is  also  obtained  free  as  a  neces- 
sary filler  in  acid  phosphate,  about  half  the  weight  of  which 
consists  of  land  plaster. 

Larva,  plural  larvae.  The  grub  or  caterpillar  stage  of  any 
insect ;  this  is  the  stage  in  which  most  insects  feed  most 
ravenously  and  in  which  they  make  most  of  their  growth. 

Leaching.  The  dissolving  of  plant  food  in  the  water  of  the  soil 
and  its  removal  in  the  water  that  drains  away. 

Leaf-blade.     The  expanded  part  of  a  leaf. 

Leaf-sheath.     See  sheath. 

Leaf-stem.  The  stalk,  which  supports  the  expanded  part  of 
a  leaf. 

Leaflets.  The  separate,  complete,  leaf-like  parts  that  make  up 
what  is  botanically  a  leaf  of  locust,  pecan,  etc. 

Legume.  A  plant  bearing  a  pod ;  the  legumes  in  common  use  in 
agriculture,  such  as  cowpeas,  clovers,  etc.,  are  chiefly 
valuable  because  the  enlargements  (tubercles  or  nodules) 
on  their  roots  store  up  nitrogen  from  the  air  for  the  enrich- 
ment of  the  soil.  Moreover,  most  cultivated  legumes  are 
valuable  forage  plants. 

Leguminous  plants.     See  legumes. 

Lint.     The  word  commonly  used  to  designate  the  fiber  of  cotton. 

Linters.  The  very  short  lint  removed  from  cotton  seed  subse- 
quent to  ginning ;  the  removal  of  linters  is  usually  done  at 
the  cotton  oil  mills. 

Lissorhoptrus  simplex.  The  scientific  name  of  the  water  weevil, 
which  injures  rice  plants. 

List.  A  small  ridge  formed  by  throwing  two  furrow-slices 
together. 


556  GLOSSARY 

Lister.  A  double  moldboard  plow  used  in  the  Southwest  for 
opening  a  deep  furrow  in  which  to  plant  crops. 

Lock  of  cotton.  The  seed  and  attached  lint  contained  in  one 
division  or  compartment  of  a  boll  of  cotton. 

Lubricant.  A  substance  used  to  oil  machinery  to  reduce  fric- 
tion. 

Macaroni  wheat.     A  class  of  hard  or  durum  wheats,  from  which 

is  manufactured  the  human  food  macaroni. 
Maize.     Another  name  for  corn. 
Malvaceae.     The   scientific   name   of  the  Mallow  family,  which 

includes  cotton,  okra,  etc. 

Manihot  utilissima.     The  scientific  name  of  the  cassava  plant. 
Mating  area.     A  tract  of  land  on  which  two  or  more  valuable 

strains,  as  of  corn,  are  planted  in  adjacent  rows  for  the 

purpose  of  effecting  cross-pollination. 
Maturity.     Ripeness. 
Melilotus  alba.     See  sweet  clover. 
Mendel's  law.    A  principle  discovered  by  Mendel,  which  explains 

the  mathematical  proportions  in  which  certain  qualities  are 

inherited  by  hybrid  plants  or  animals. 
Middle  burster.     A  plow  with  both  a  right-hand  and  a  left-hand 

moldboard,  thus  at  the  same  time  throwing  the  soil  both 

to  right  and  left. 

Middling.     A  certain  commercial  grade  of  cotton. 
Midge.     A  particular  insect  of  small  size.     For  the  sorghum 

midge,  see  p.  233. 

Milk  stage.     The  stage  of  ripeness  of  a  grain  in  which  the  con- 
tents of  the  seed  are  of  the  consistency  and  color  of  milk. 
Mower.     A  mowing  machine. 
Mulch.     A  covering,  usually  of  loose  soil  or  litter. 
Multiplication  plot.     An  area  of  some  crop  grown  chiefly  with 

a  view  to  increasing  the  amount  of  good  seed  for  planting, 

without  special  reference  to  improvement  in  the  quality  of 

the  seed.     See  p.  135. 
Muriate  of  potash.     A  salt-like  fertilizer  containing  about  50 

per  cent  of  potash. 

Nematode  worms.  Minute  worms  which  enter  the  roots  of 
certain  plants  and  cause  harmful  enlargements. 

Neocosmospora  vasinfecta.  The  scientific  name  of  cotton  wilt  or 
black  root. 

Nitrate  of  soda.  A  combination  of  sodium  and  nitric  acid,  form- 
ing a  soluble  and  prompt  fertilizer,  containing  14  to  16  per 
cent  of  nitrogen. 

Nitrogen.     A  chemical  element,  which  in  certain  combinations  is 


GLOSSARY  557 

an  important  fertilizing  material  and  in  other  forms  a  valu- 
able part  of  the  food  of  men  and  lower  animals. 

Nitrogen-free  extract.  In  plants  nutritive  compounds  contain- 
ing no  nitrogen  and  consisting  chiefly  of  starch,  sugar,  etc. 

Noctuidce.     The  scientific  name  of  one  group  of  cut-worms. 

Node.     A  joint  on  a  stem  where  a  leaf  is  usually  borne. 

Oryza  saliva.  The  scientific  name  of  the  rice  plant ;  the  first 
word  is  the  name  of  the  genus,  and  the  second  is  the  name 
of  the  species. 

Oxygen.  A  gas  existing  in  the  atmosphere  and  required  in  some 
form  by  all  forms  of  life.  Oxygen  also  exists  in  combination 
with  numerous  other  elements,  forming  gases,  liquids,  and 
solids. 

Panicle.     A  branching  seed-head,  as  of  oats. 

Papilionacece.     The   name   of   the    family   to    which    peanuts, 

clovers,  and  most  other  cultivated  legumes  belong. 
Parasite.     An  animal  (or  vegetable)  organism  which  lives  on  and 

obtains  nourishment  from  the  body  of  another. 
Peduncle.     In  the  cotton  plant,  the  stem  supporting  the  square, 

bloom,  or  boll. 
Peppergrass.     An  annual  weed  of  the  Mustard  family,  seeding 

about  the  same  time  as  wheat. 
Phosphatic.     Containing  a  large  proportion  of  phosphorus  or 

phosphoric  acid. 
Phosphoric    acid.     The    chemical    compound    of    the    elements 

phosphorus    and    oxygen    that    makes    acid    phosphate    a 

valuable  fertilizer. 
Piedmont  section.     The  elevated  country  at  the  eastern  base  of 

the  Appalachian  Mountains. 
Pine  needles.     Pine  leaves. 
Pistil.     The  central  portion  of  a  flower  at  the  base  of  which  seed 

may  develop. 
Polish  wheat.     See  p.  41. 
Pollen.     The  male  element  in  the  fertilization  of  a  flower ;  usually 

dustlike  or  in  the  form  of  minute  particles. 
Pollen  tube.     A  slender  outgrowth  from  the  pollen  grain  after  the 

latter  finds  lodgment  on  a  receptive  stigma. 
Pollination.     The  act  or  fact  of  conveying  pollen  to  the  receptive 

stigma. 

Pores.     Openings. 
Potash.     The  compound  of  the  chemical  elements  potassium 

and  oxygen  that  makes  kainit  a  valuable  fertilizer. 
Pouland  wheat.     See  p.  40. 
Protein.     Certain  compounds  rich  in  nitrogen,  found  in  plants 

and  animals. 


558  GLOSSARY 

Pupa,  plural  pupae.     See  pupal  stage. 

Pupal  stage.  That  stage  in  the  life  of  most  insects  which  follows 
the  larval  or  "caterpillar"  or  "grub"  stage  and  which  im- 
mediately precedes  the  stage  of  the  mature  insect.  The 
pupal  stage  is  not  usually  a  period  of  growth,  but  of  in- 
activity and  of  change  of  form. 

Quarter  drains.     Shallow  cross-drains  in  a  field  of  sugar-cane. 

Rachis.    The  portion  of  the  stem  on  which  flowers  and  seeds  are 

borne. 

Raw  phosphate.    See  p.  330. 
Recessive  quality.     That  one  of  a  pair  of  contrasting  qualities 

that  appears  in  the  smaller  proportion  in  the  hybrid  offspring. 
Red  clover.    Commonly  called  clover  ;  a  biennial  forage  plant 

with  roundish,  pinkish  flower  heads. 
Rhizoctonia.     The  scientific  name  of  the  damping-off  or  sore-shin 

disease  of  young  cotton  plants. 
Rice  bran.     See  p.  220. 
Rice  polish.     See  p.  220. 
Rice  weevil.     Though  named  for  the  rice  plant,  this  weevil  does 

most  injury  to  stored  corn. 
Rick.     A  long  stack. 
Ridging.     See  bedding. 
Rivers.     See  benders. 
Rotation  of  crops.     The  succession  of  crops  that  follow  each  other 

on  the  same  field  in  regular  order. 
Rust.     Diseases  of  certain  plants  due  to  the  presence  of  definite, 

minute,  vegetable  organisms. 

Score-card.     A  numerical  standard  of  excellence. 

Screening.     Separating  by  means  of  sieves. 

Sea  Island  cotton.  The  plant  that  produces  the  longest,  finest 
cotton  fiber ;  its  name  is  taken  from  the  fact  that  this 
species  of  cotton  is  grown  chiefly  on  islands  along  the  South 
Atlantic  seacoast. 

Self-pollination.  Conveyance  of  pollen  to  the  pistil  of  the  same 
plant.  Oats  and  wheat  are  self-pollinated. 

Shank.     In  the  corn  plant,  the  support  for  the  ear. 

Shatter.     To  drop  the  grains  prematurely. 

Sheaf  oats.     Oat-plants  not  threshed,  including  grain  and  straw. 

Sheath.  The  lower  or  stem-encircling  part  of  the  leaves  of  grass- 
like  plants. 

Shock.  A  collection  of  bundles  of  grain  plants  leaning  together ; 
a  small  pile  of  hay. 

Shocker.     See  p.  198. 

Shovel.     A  shovel  plow  is  intermediate  in  width  and  shape  be- 


GLOSSARY  559 

tween  a  scooter  and  a  sweep.     It  is  used  to  open  a  trench  or 

furrow  and  is  attached  to  the  foot  of  a  plow-stock. 
Shredder.     A  machine  for  tearing  into  small  pieces  the  coarse 

stems  and  other  parts  of  corn  stalks  and  other  forms  of 

coarse  forage.     See  Fig.  98. 

Shucks.     Corn  shucks,  the  leaf -like  parts  inclosing  the  ear. 
Sieve-tubes.     Plant  structures  for  the  circulation  of  sap. 
Silo.     See  p.  99. 
Single-tree.     The  short  wooden  bar  to  which  the  traces  of  each 

horse  or  mule  are  hitched. 
Slips.     The  slips  of  the  sweet  potato  are  also  called  "sets"  and 

"draws."     They  consist  of  the  young  shoots  growing  out  of 

the  potato  that  is  bedded.     See  Fig.  191. 
Small  grains.     A  term  applied  collectively  to  wheat,  oats,  rye, 

and  barley  in  distinction  from  the  larger  grain,  corn. 
Smut.     A  disease  of  certain  plants  due  to  the  growth  of  certain 

minute  vegetable  organisms. 
Sorghum  vulgare.     The  scientific  name  which  is  used  by  some 

authorities  to  include  all  the  sorghums. 

Species.     A  group  of  plants  having  certain  qualities  in  common. 
Spelt.     See  p.  40. 
Sphacelotheca  sorghi.     The  scientific  name  of  the  fungus  causing 

the  kernel  smut  of  the  sorghums.     See  p.  233. 
Sphceronema  fimbriatum.      The  scientific  name  of  the  organism 

causing  the  black-rot  of  sweet  potatoes ;   until  recently  the 

first  part  of  the  name  was  usually  written  as  Ceratocystis. 
Spikelets.     A  small  cluster  of  flowers  or  seeds. 
Spores.     Minute  bodies  which  serve  the  purpose  of  seed  for  the 

fungi,  that  cause  most  plant  diseases. 

Stamens.     Anthers  or  pollen  cases  together  with  their  supports. 
Sterility.     In  plants,  failure  to  produce  a  normal  number  of 

seed. 
Stigma.     The  upper  part  of  the  pistil  on  which  pollen  must  lodge 

and  grow  to  effect  fertilization  of  the  flower. 
Stomata.     Minute  openings  in  the  outer  layer  of  plant  tissue, 

especially  on  the  under  sides  of  leaves,  through  which  open- 
ings the  leaf  gives  off  moisture  and  takes  in  carbon  dioxide 

gas  and  oxygen. 

Strains.     Subdivisions  of  a  variety. 
Subsoil  plow.     A  plow  for  loosening  without  Inverting  the  soil. 

See  Fig.  78. 

Subsoiling.     See  p.  163. 
Subspecies.     A  division  of  a  species. 
Suckers.     In  the  corn  plant,  stems  springing  from  some  of  the 

lower  nodes  of  the  main  stem. 
Sucrose.     Crystallizable  sugar. 


560  GLOSSARY 

Sulfate  of  potash.  A  fertilizer  containing  37  to  50  per  cent  of 
potash. 

Sweet  clover.  Melilotus  alba;  a  biennial,  summer-growing  leg- 
ume valuable  for  soil  improvement,  pasturage,  and  hay  for 
home  use. 

Tap-root.     The  main  central  root  of  such  plants  as  cotton. 

Tare  (in  cotton).  The  allowance  for  weight  of  the  covering,  or 
bagging  and  ties,  on  a  cotton  bale ;  in  practice  it  is  usually 
24  pounds  or  less  in  American  markets. 

Tassel.  The  panicle  of  male  flowers  borne  at  the  top  of  a  flower- 
ing corn  plant. 

Teosinte.     A  tropical  forage  plant  closely  related  to  corn. 

Tetranychus  gloveri.  The  scientific  name  of  the  red  spider,  a 
small  mite  that  attacks  cotton  leaves. 

Threshing.  The  act  of  separating  the  grain  of  wheat,  oats,  etc., 
from  the  straw  and  chaff. 

Throw-board.     See  Fig.  92  and  p.  191. 

Tillage.     Cultivation. 

Tiller.     To  branch  from  the  crown  ;  to  stool. 

Tilletia  horrida.  The  scientific  name  of  the  fungus  causing  black 
smut  in  rice. 

Tip.  The  end  of  a  corn  ear  farthest  from  the  point  of  attach- 
ment. 

Toxic.     Poisonous. 

Toxoptera  graminum.  The  "green  bug,"  a  plant-louse  injuring 
grain  plants. 

Transpiration.  The  loss  of  water  from  plants  by  its  passing 
into  the  air  from  the  leaves,  etc. 

Triticum.     The  name  of  the  genus  to  which  wheat  belongs. 

Turn-plow.  The  kind  of  plow  most  generally  used  for  turning 
over  the  soil.  It  includes  a  concave  moldboard  for  twisting, 
pulverizing,  and  inverting  the  furrow-slice. 

Ustilago  maydis.  The  scientific  name  of  the  fungus  causing  corn 
smut. 

Variety.  A  subdivision  of  a  species ;  a  group  of  individual  plants 
possessing  in  common  certain  botanical  or  agricultural 
characteristics. 

Vegetable  matter.  Material  now  or  recently  existing  in  the  form 
of  plant  tissue. 

Vegetative  branches  or  limbs.  On  the  cotton  plant,  those 
branches  on  which  no  boll  stems  are  directly  attached  (see 
p.  250);  common  equivalent  terms  are  "base  limbs"  and 
"  suckers." 


GLOSSARY  561 

Vermicelli.     A  form  of  macaroni,  manufactured  from  wheat. 
Vetch,    hairy.     A    winter-growing,    annual,    leguminous    plant, 

suitable  for  soil  improvement,  pasturage,  and  hay. 
Vine  cuttings.     Sections  of  vines  cut  off  and  planted,  as  with 

sweet  potatoes. 
Vitality.     In  seed,  ability  to  sprout  and  to  produce  strong  young 

plants. 
Vs.,  versus.     Against,  or  in  comparison  with. 

Water  furrows.     The  depressions  or  shallow  trenches  between 

two  elevated  beds  of  soil. 
Weeder.     A  form  of  light  harrow,  with  long,  flexible  teeth.    Se* 

Fig.  86. 

Whorls.     Sets  or  groups. 
Wild  onion.     See  garlic. 
Windrows.     In  sugar-cane  culture  this  applies  to  the  rows  of 

heaped  and  covered  cane  intended  for  planting. 
Winter-killing.    The  dying  of  young  plants  from  cold  or  heaving. 

Zea  mays.     The  scientific  name  of  Indian  corn. 


INDEX 


[Numbers  refer  to  pages.] 


Acid  phosphate,  how  prepared,  330. 

Alabama  argillacea,  408. 

Alabama     Canebrake     Experiment 

Station,  294. 
Alabama   Experiment   Station,    12, 

18,  31,  119,  126,  145,  157,  161, 

178,  187,   188,   205,    266,    270, 

273,  293,   299,   313,   325,   326, 

333,  339,  406,  522,  546. 
Alabama,    productive    varieties    of 

corn  in,   119. 
Alabama,    productive    varieties    of 

cotton  in,  293. 
Albino  corn  plants,  140. 
Alfalfa,  root-rot  on,  414. 
Allard,  H.  J.,  266. 
Allison  method  of  cotton  and  corn 

culture,  180. 
American  Breeders'  Association,  31, 

145,  314. 

Anderson,  A.  P.,  230. 
Andropogon  sorghum,  231. 
Anthracnose  of  cotton,  415. 
Anthronomus  grandis,  392. 
Arachis  hypogea,  464. 
Arkansas  Experiment  Station,  119, 

230,  247,  469,  483. 
Arkansas,   productive  varieties    of 

corn  in,  119. 
Atkinson,  G.  F.,  420. 
Auricles  of  oats,  2. 
Austin,  A.,  230. 
Ayres,  L.  W.,  546. 

Bailey's  Cyclopedia  of  American 
Agriculture,  67,  77,  97,  135, 
149,  247,  266,  360,  420,  424, 
456,  483,  521,  547. 


Ball,  C.  R.,  246,  247. 
Barley,  74. 

beardless,  76. 

clasps,  75. 

composition,  75. 

description,  74. 

enemies,  77. 

fertilizers  for,  76. 

laboratory  exercises,  77. 

literature,  77. 

smut,  77. 

soils  for,  76. 

sowing,  76. 

species  and  varieties,  75. 

uses  of,  74. 

Batts,  J.  F.,  yield  of  corn,  204. 
Beal,  H.  W.,  230. 
Beattie,  R.  W.,  483. 
Bennett,  R.  L.,  314. 
Bessey,  C.  E.,    67. 
Bishop,  F.  C.,  216. 
Blackstrap,  definition  of,  513. 
Blissus  leucopterus,  211. 
Blue  stem  wheat,  41. 
Bluestone,  61. 
Bobolinks,  229. 
Bondurant,  A.  J.,  546. 
Bowman,  M.  L.,  205,  216. 
Boyce,  424. 

Boy  kin,  E.  B.,  266,  314. 
Branching  wheat,  40. 
Breeding  of  cotton,  300. 

of  corn,  127. 
Broom-corn,  241. 

climate,  soils,  and  fertilizers,  242 

culture,  243. 

description,  241. 

enemies,  245. 


563 


564 


INDEX 


Broom-corn  (continued) 

harvesting   and   preparation    for 
marketing,   244. 

standard  and  dwarf,  242. 

statistics  and  yield,  241. 

varieties,  242. 
Budworms  of  corn,  206. 
Burkett,  C.  W.,  360,  376,  387. 
Burnette,  H.  F.,  456. 

Callandra  oryza,  211. 
Calvin,  M.  V.,  340. 
Canada  Experiment  Farms,  20. 
Canndbis  saliva,  422. 
Carbon  disulfide,  64,  202,  212. 
Carleton,  M.  A.,  65. 
Carpenter,  F.  B.,  547. 
Cassava,  457. 

climate  and  distribution,  458. 

cultural  methods,  459. 

enemies,  461. 

fertilizers  for,  459. 

"frenching,"  461. 

harvesting,  460. 

kinds,  457. 

laboratory  exercises,  462. 

literature,  462. 

poisonous  constituent  in,  458. 

propagation,  460. 

soils  for,  459. 

storing  "  seed  canes,"  461. 

uses  and  composition,  458. 
Cercospora  personata,  483. 
Census,  U.  S.  Bureau  of,  287,  341. 
Chalcodermis  ceneus,  408. 
Cheat,  59. 
Check-rower,  166. 
Chemistry,  U.  S.  Bureau  of,  462. 
Chess,  59. 

Chinch  bugs,  63,  211. 
Close  breeding  in  corn,  140. 
Clover,  crimson,  in  rotation,  47. 

red,  in  rotation,  47. 
Club  wheat,  41. 
Cobb,  N.  A.,  521. 
Cobey,  W.  W.,  548. 


Coburn,  F.  D.,  205,  246. 
Cockle,  60. 

Colletotrichum  gossypii,  415. 
Composts,  335. 

Connecticut  State  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, 136,  143,  149. 
Conner,  A.  B.,  246. 
Convolvulaceoe,  425. 
Copper  sulfate,  61. 
Corn,    accidental    versus    inherited 

excellence,   131. 
Corn,  albino  plants,  141. 

Allison  method  of  culture,  180. 

Angoumois  moth  in,  213. 

barren  stalks,  130. 

binder  or  harvester,  198,  199. 

blades,  99. 

brace-roots,  82. 

breeding,  127. 

breeding  for  composition,  136. 

breeding,     laboratory    exercises, 
148. 

breeding,  literature  of,  149. 

breeding,  systems  of  numbering, 
136. 

budworms,  206. 

butts,  108. 

characters  needed,  114. 

checking,  175. 

cob,  color  of,  104. 

color  of  grain,  94,  117,  141-144. 

comparative   yields    of   breeding 
rows,   132. 

composition,  98. 

composition  influences  shape,  137. 

composition,  laboratory  exercises, 
110. 

composition,  of   grains  from  tip, 
middle,  and  butt,  146. 

composition,  varied  by  selection, 
136. 

cowpeas  with,  181. 

cribs,  201. 

crossing  versus  selection,  139. 

"crossed,"  180. 

cultivation  of,  158. 


INDEX 


565 


Corn  (continued) 

cultivation,  laboratory    exercises 

in,  188. 

cultivation,  literature  of,  188. 
cutting  and  shocking,  192. 
cutworms  attacking,  207. 
dates  of  planting,  168. 
definition  of,  78. 
dent,  113. 

depth  of  planting,  167. 
depth  of  plowing  for,  162. 
distance  between  plants,  178. 
dominant  and  recessive  qualities, 

143. 

draft  on  fertility,  100. 
ear,  91. 

ear-branch,  84. 
ear,    length    and    circumference, 

109. 

ear,  proportion  of  grain,  109. 
ear,  rots,  215. 
ear,  shank,  116. 

ear,    shape    influenced    by   com- 
position,  137. 

ear,  space  between  rows,  108. 
ear-to-row   system   of    breeding, 

133. 

ear-worm,  208,  209,  210. 
early  varieties,  125. 
effect  of  change  of  climate   on, 

147. 

effects  of  cross-breeding,  14. 
effects  of  in-breeding,  140. 
enemies,  206. 

enemies,  laboratory  exercises,  215. 
enemies,  literature  of,  216. 
fertilizers  for,  153,  187. 
fertilizer  formulas  for,  154. 
fertilizer,  time  to  apply,  155. 
fertilizing,    laboratory    exercises, 

147. 

fertilizing,  with  legumes,  154. 
fertilizing,  literature  of,  157. 
fertilization  of  the  flower,  90. 
flint,  113. 
"  fodder,"  99. 


Corn  (continued) 

fungous  diseases,  214. 

germination,  test  of,  138. 

grading  seed  grains,  147. 

grain,  color  in,  94. 

grain,  composition,  93. 

grain,  cross-section  of,  93. 

grain,  shapes  of,  109. 

grain,  structure  of,  92. 

handling  the  ears,  189. 

hardness  of  grain,  114,  117. 

harrowing,  170. 

harvesting,  189. 

harvesting,    laboratory  exercises, 
204. 

harvesting,  literature  of,  205. 

height  of  ear,  129. 

hereditary  qualities,  129. 

implements  for,  164. 

improvement  of  varieties,  127. 

Indian  meal  moth  in,  213. 

in  a  3-year  rotation,  152. 

in  a  4-year  rotation,  153. 

inheritance  of  color,  144,  145. 

inheritance  of  flint  or  dent  struc- 
ture, 143. 

insects,  206. 

judging,  98,  101. 

judging,  laboratory  exercises,  102. 

judging,  literature,  111. 

kernel,  92. 

kernels,  best  shape,  109. 

large-eared  varieties,  122. 

"laying  by,"  179. 

leaves,  83. 

leaves,  curling,  84. 

structure,  laboratory  exercises, 
97. 

level  preparation   and   planting, 
161. 

literature,  97. 

maturity,  114. 

means  of  improvement,  128. 

Mendel's  law  applied  to,  143. 

methods  of   applying  fertilizers, 
156. 


566 


INDEX 


Corn  (continued) 

methods  of  cutting,  194. 

Mexican  June,  125. 

modified  ridging  system,  160,  162. 

number  of  ears  per  plant,  86. 

number  of  plants  per  hill,  177. 

other  crops  with,  179. 

place  in  rotation,  152. 

planting,  166. 

planting  in  water-furrow,  161. 

pod,  114. 

pop,  113,  114. 

pop  corn  crossed  with  dent,  127. 

position  of  ears,  86,  87,  116. 

productive  varieties  of  corn,  120. 

products,  100. 

prolific  varieties,  122. 

proportion  of  parts,  99. 

"pulling  fodder,"  191. 

pulling  the  ears,  189. 

qualities  accompanying  high 
yields,  116. 

qualities  needing  improvement, 
116. 

quantity  of  fertilizer,  157. 

races  and  varieties,  112. 

rat-proof  cribs,  201. 

relationships  between  corn  plants, 
139. 

remnants  of  breeding  ears,  135. 

removal  of  tip  grains,  146. 

replanting,  169. 

ridging  versus  flushing  land,  159. 

roots,  79,  80,  81. 

rotations  for,  150. 

rotation,  literature  of,  157. 

saving  by  shocking,  192. 

score-card  for,  101. 

seed  from  tip,  middle,  and  butt, 
145. 

selecting  and  crossing,  128. 

selecting  according  to  composi- 
tion, 138. 

selection  in  field  or  crib,  130. 

shanks,  length  of,  130. 

shape  of  ear,  105. 


Corn  (continued) 

shapes  of  grain,  92,  117. 

shocker,  198. 

shocking  horse  for,  194. 

shredding,  200. 

shucks,  84,  116. 

silks,  88. 

simple  selection,  131. 

size  of  ears  for  planting,  130. 

sled  cutter,  197. 

smut,  214. 

soft,  113,  114. 

soils  for,  150. 

space  between  .kernels  near  cob, 

169. 

stem,  82. 
stover,  99,  193. 
stripping  the  blades,  191. 
subsoiling  for,  163. 
sweet,  113,  114. 
tassel,  86. 

thickness  of  planting,  176. 
thinning,  177. 
time  of  plowing,  159. 
tips,  108. 

top  and  bottom  ears,  144. 
topping,  192. 
trueness  to  type,  109. 
two-horse  cultivators  for,  174. 
uses  of,  78. 
varieties,  116. 

varieties,  illustrations  of,   124. 
varieties,     laboratory     exercises, 

125. 

varieties,  literature  of,  126. 
varieties,  yields  of,  118. 
vitality,  104. 

weevil-resistance,  114,  115. 
weevils  in,  202,  211. 
Williamson   method   of    culture, 

185. 

yellow  varieties,  122. 
yields,  204. 
Cotton,  absorbent,  263. 

Allen  Long-staple  variety,  299. 
angular  leaf-spot,  418. 


INDEX 


567 


Cotton  (continued) 

annual  crop  of  Egypt,  384. 

annual  crop  of  India,  384. 

antagonistic  qualities,  307. 

anthracnose,  415. 

Asiatic,  281. 

bacterial  blight,  419. 

bagging,  369. 

bale,  round,  369. 

bales,  tare  on,  369. 

baling,  367. 

bark  and  stems,  254. 

barring  off,  352. 

-belt,  extent  of,  383. 

"benders,"  277. 

Bengal,  276. 

big-boll  group,  288. 

Blue  Ribbon  variety,  291. 

boll-rot,  415. 

bolls,  257. 

boll-stems  or  peduncles,  255. 

boll-weevil,  392. 

boll-weevil,         burning         stalks 

against,  398. 

boll- weevil,  extent  of  injury,  392. 
boll-weevil,  food  of,  393. 
boll-weevil,  grazing  stalks  against, 

398. 
boll-weevil,  illustrations  of,   171, 

172,  173. 

boll-weevil,  insect  enemies  of,  404. 
boll-weevil,    minor    methods    of 

combating,  400. 

boll-weevil,    map    of    region    in- 
vaded by,  403. 
boll-weevil,  nature  of  injury  by, 

395. 
boll-weevil,  picking  squares  for, 

404. 

boll-weevil,  poisoning,  400. 
boll-weevil,  principal  preventive 

measures,  398. 
boll-weevil,  rapid  multiplication, 

396. 

boll-weevil,  rate  of  spread,  402. 
boll-weevil,  stages  of,  395. 


Cotton  (continued) 

boll-weevil,  widening  rows  against, 

401. 
boll-weevil,    winter   quarters    of, 

397. 

boll-worm,  210,  388. 
boll-worm,  preventive  measures, 

390. 

breeding,  300. 
breeding,  for  a  small  number  of 

qualities,  308. 
breeding,     laboratory     exercises, 

313. 

breeding,  literature,  314. 
burning  of  stalks,  397. 
burs,  plant  food  in,  272. 
care  of  baled,  370. 
caterpillar,  404. 
causes  of  scant  profits,  320. 
chopping,  354. 

classification  of  varieties,  283. 
classing,  372. 
cleaning  middles,  355. 
Cleveland  variety,  298. 
cluster  group  of,  283. 
color  of  lint,  374. 
commercial  grades,  372. 
commercial  grades,  value  of,  375. 
competition  by  foreign  countries, 

385. 
competition,   means  of  meeting, 

387. 

composition,  267. 
composition,  laboratory  exercises, 

273. 

composition,  literature,  273. 
composts  for,  335. 
compresses,  371. 
Cooke  Improved  variety,  298. 
crop,  statistics  of,  379. 
crossing  of  American  and  Asiatic 

species,  276. 

crossing  versus  selection,  301. 
cultivation,  341,  351. 
cultivation,  laboratory  exercises, 

360. 


568 


INDEX 


Cotton  (continued) 

cultivation,  literature,  360. 

culture  in  presence  of  the  boll- 
weevil,  405. 

culture  in  U.  S.,  379. 

culture  in  U.  S.,  distribution  of, 
383. 

defects  in  bolls,  306. 

depth  of  cultivation,  357. 

depth  of  plowing  for,  343. 

description  of  varieties,  296. 

directions  for  crossing,  302. 

distance  experiments,  359. 

distribution  of  fertilizer,  347. 

draft  on  fertility,  315. 

early  King-like  group,  288. 

easy  deterioration  of  varieties, 
300. 

effects  of  raw  and  acid  phosphate, 
330. 

Egyptian,  280. 

family  and  genus,  274. 

fertilizers,  309. 

fertilizers,  advantages  of  home 
mixing,  321. 

fertilizers,  amounts  per  acre,  324. 

fertilizers,  amounts  of  crop  in- 
crease from,  322. 

fertilizers,      factory-mixed,     320. 

fertilizers,  laboratory  exercises, 
340. 

fertilizers,  profits  from,  323. 

fiber,  breaking  strength,  263. 

fibers  of  several  varieties,  292. 

fiber,  size,  263. 

fiber,  uses  of,  272. 

flowers,  256. 

flowers,  time  required  for  de- 
velopment, 265. 

forming  beds  for,  345. 

frequency  of  cultivation,  356. 

fruit,  stages  in  life  of,  265. 

fruiting  branches,  250. 

gin,  370,  379. 

gin,  roller,  370. 

gin,  saw,  370. 


Cotton  (continued) 

ginning,  366. 

ginning,  Long  Staple,  370. 

ginning,  Sea  Island,  369. 

glands,  257. 

grade,  how  determined,  374. 

ground  phosphate  rock  for,  329. 

harvesting  and  marketing,  361. 
*  harvesting,  laboratory  exercises, 
376. 

harvesting,  literature,  376. 

hastening  maturity  against  boll- 
weevil,  400. 

Hawkins  variety,  296. 

history  and  statistics  in  America, 
377. 

hoeing,  356. 

immature  fibers,  262. 

implements   used   in    cultivation 
of,  354. 

improvement  profitable,  301. 

Indian,  258,  276. 

indications  of  need  of  nitrogen, 
319. 

insect  enemies,  388. 

Jackson,  296. 

King  variety,  297. 

late  cultivation,  356. 

Layton  variety,  297. 

leaf -worm,  404. 

leaves,  255. 

leaves,  weight  of,  271. 

lime  for,  335. 

lint,  262. 

lint,  composition  of,  267. 

lint,  effect  of  storage  on,  263. 

lint,  plant  food  in,  271. 

lint,  proportion  of  plant,  271. 

linters,  383. 

list  of  leading  varieties,  293. 

literature,  339. 

locks,  257. 

long-limbed  group,  290. 

long-staple  upland,  290. 

maturity  affected   by  fertilizers, 
327. 


INDEX 


569 


Cotton  (continued) 

maturity  or  earliness,  254. 

methods  of  plowing  for,  342. 

methods  of  separating  large 
seeds,  313. 

mildew,  418. 

minor  leaf  diseases,  418. 

nitrogenous  fertilizers,  325. 

no  indications  revealing  the  need 
for  phosphorus,  318. 

not  fertilized  according  to  com- 
position, 317. 

pasting  the  seed  of,  348. 

Peruvian,  280. 

petals  and  sepals,  257. 

Peterkin  variety,  296. 

picker,  Dixie,  365. 

picker,  Lowry,  365. 

picker,  Oliver,  366. 

picker,  Price-Campbell,  366. 

picker,  Thurman  Vacuum,  366. 

pickers,  mechanical,  361. 

pistil,  257. 

plant  breeder's  methods  of  im- 
proving, 309. 

plant,  composition  of  parts 
of,  270. 

plant  food  in,  271. 

plant,  habit  of,  274. 

plant  in  budding  stage,  401. 

plant-to-row  method  of  breeding, 
310. 

planters,  348. 

plants,  weight  of  stems,  leaves, 
etc.,  271. 

pollen,  256. 

pollination  of,  256. 

principal  qualities  desired  in 
plant,  305. 

principal  species,  274,  275. 

principal  uses,  267. 

-producing  countries,  384. 

productiveness  of  varieties,  291. 

quality  affected  by  fertilizers,  338. 

qualities  needing  improvement, 
307. 


Cotton  (continued) 

reasons  for  variation,  282. 

Rio  Grande  group,  287. 

rivers,  277. 

roots,  254. 

roots,  plant  food  in,  271. 

roots,  weight  of,  271. 

root-knot,  414. 

root-rot,  414,  415. 

Russell  variety,  297. 

rust,  checked  by  potash,  333. 

score-card  for,  313. 

Sea  Island,  276,  279. 

seed,  264. 

seed  as  fertilizer,  325 

seed,  composition  of,  268. 

seed,  effects  on  hogs,  272. 

seed,  effects  on  young  calves,  273. 

seed,  germination  of,  264. 

seeding,  381. 

seed,  number  per  bushel,  349. 

-seed  meal,  poisonous  effects  of, 
272. 

-seed  meal  versus  manure,  328. 

-seed  meal,  sometimes  unprofit- 
able, 328. 

seed  patch,  306. 

seed,  plant  food  in,  271. 

-seed  products,  270. 

seed,  production  and  uses  of,  381. 

seed,  proportion  of  fiber,  hulls, 
and  meats  in,  264. 

seed,  proportion  to  entire  plant, 
271. 

seed,  rolling,  349. 

seed,  time  to  apply  as  fertilizer, 
327. 

seed,  uses  of,  272. 

seed  versus  cotton-seed  meal  as 
fertilizer,  269,  326. 

semicluster  group,  285. 

size  of  seed  for  planting,  312. 

soils,  315. 

sowing  seed  in,  357. 

species,  American  group,  276. 

species,  Asiatic  group,  276. 


570 


INDEX 


Cotton  (continued) 

species,  laboratory  exercises,  281. 

species,  literature,  281. 

stalk  cutter,  399. 

stalks,  loss  in  burning,  406. 

statistics,     laboratory    exercises, 
387. 

stems  and  branches,  248. 

stems,  plant  food  ic,  271. 

stems,  weight  of,  271. 

"storm  resistance,"  261. 

structure  and  general  character- 
istics, 248. 

structure,    laboratory    exercises, 
265. 

structure,  literature,  266. 

subsoiling  for,  344. 

tillage  by  weeder  and  harrow,  350. 

time  of  planting,  347. 

time  of  plowing  for,  342. 

tinges  and  stains,  374. 

Toole  variety,  296,  297. 

Triumph  variety,  298. 

Truitt  variety,  298. 

twist  in  fibers,  262. 

upland  species,  276. 

variation  and  selection,  303. 

varieties,  282. 

varieties,    laboratory     exercises, 
299. 

varieties,  literature,  299. 

vegetative  branches,  249,  250. 

where  potash  is  needed,  318. 

wilt,  description  of,  412. 

wilt,  persistence  of,  413. 

wilt-resistant  varieties,  414. 

wilt,  spread  of,  412. 

wilt,  treatment  of,  413. 

young  plants  of,  353. 
Cowpeas,  in  corn,  181. 

drilling    versus  broadcast  sowing, 
181. 

fertilizer  for,  184. 

methods  of  drilling,  184. 

methods    of    sowing    broadcast, 
183. 


Cross-breeding,  effects    of,  in  corn, 

141. 

in  corn,  140. 

"Crossed  corn."     See  page  180. 
Crossing  versus  selection  in  cotton, 

301. 

Crossley,  B.  W.,  205,  216. 
Current  cross,  127. 
Cutworms,  207. 
Cylas  formicarius,  452. 

Davenport,  E.,  149. 

Davidson,  R.  J.,  547. 

Dewey,  L.  H.,  281,  424. 

Diabrotica  12-punctata,  206. 

Diatrea  saccharalis,  520. 

Dioscorea,  431. 

Diplodia,  215. 

Diplosis  sorghicola,  233. 

Disk-harrow,  16. 

for  forming  beds,  347. 

Dodlinger,  P.  T.,  67. 

Dodson,  W.  R.,  157,  230,  247. 

Dolochonyx  oryzivorus,  229. 

Dominance     of     qualities    in    hy- 
brids, 143. 

Double  fertilization,  90. 
in  corn,  142. 

Drake,  Z.  J.,  yield  of  corn,  204. 

Drilling  versus  broadcast  sowing  of 
wheat,  54. 

Duggar,  B.  M.,  456. 

Duggar,  J.  F.,   31,    126,    157,  188, 
205,  299,  340,  360,  455. 

Earle,  D.  E.,  376. 
Earle,  F.  S.,  521. 
Ear-to-row  system  of  corn  breed- 

ing,  133. 

East,  E.  M.,  143,  149. 
Einkorn,  40. 
Elliott,  E.  E.,  67. 
Embryo-sac,  90. 
Emmer,  40. 
Endosperm,  90. 


INDEX 


571 


Entomology,  Georgia  State  Board 
of,  52. 

Entomology,  U.  S.  Bureau  of,  31. 

Evans,  W.  E.,  281. 

Experiment  Station,  U.  S.  Office 
of,  117,  126,  205,  273,  281, 
287,  340,  360,  376,  547. 

Fertilizers,  advantages  of  high  grade, 
323. 

advantages  of  home  mixing,  321. 

distribution  of,  347. 

effects  of,  on  soil,  320. 

for  corn,  153. 

for  cotton,  315. 

nitrogenous,  325. 

time  of  application  to  corn,  154. 
Fitz,  James,  455. 
Floats,  330. 
Florida  Experiment   Station,    459, 

462,  522. 

Floyd,  M.  L.,  546. 
Freeman,  C.  F.,    246. 
Freeman,  E.  M.,  246. 
Frost,  date  of  first  killing,  52. 
Fulcaster  wheat,  42,  43. 
Fultz  wheat,  42,  43. 
Furman  compost  formula,  336. 
Fusarium,  215. 

Galechia  cerealella,  64. 
Gammie,  G.  O.,  276,  281. 
Garlic,  wild,  60. 
Garman,  H.,  547. 

Georgia  Experiment  Station,  18,  31, 

99,  120,  145,  154,  178,  187,  192, 

205,  294,  324,   333,  340,   360. 

Georgia,     productive    varieties    of 

corn  in,  120. 
productive    varieties    of    cotton 

in,  393. 

Germination  box,  138. 
Glceosporium  manihot,  461. 
Gossypium,  arboreum,  276. 
barbadense,  276. 
hirsutum,  276. 


Gossypium  (continued) 

obtusifolium,  276. 

peruvianum,  276. 
Grain  drill,  17. 
Grain-moths,  64. 
Graminece,  1,  68. 
Grasshoppers,  209. 
"Green-bug,"  25. 
Guano  horn,  347. 

Hammond,  H.,  360,  376. 
Handy,  R.  B.,  483. 
Harper,  J.  N.,  299,  340,  547. 
Harrow,  spike-tooth,  171. 

use  in  cultivating  cotton,  350. 
Harshberger,  J.  W.,  98. 
Hartley,    C.    P.,     130,    145,     146, 

247. 

Hays,  W.  M.,  67,  205. 
Heaving,  19. 
Heliothis  obsoleta,  210. 
Hemp,  422. 

cultural  methods,  423. 

fertilizer  for,  423. 

harvesting,  423. 

laboratory  exercises,  424. 

literature,  424. 

soils,  423. 
Hessian  fly,  62. 
Heterodera  radicicola,  411. 
Hinds,  W.    E.,  63,   203,   211,   212, 

213,  214,  393. 
Hinds  chain  cultivator,  402. 
Hopkins,  C.  G.,  5,  97,  136. 
"  Hopper-dozer,"  209. 
Hunt,  T.  F.,  4,  67,  97,  247,  376. 
Hunter,  S.  J.,  25,  31. 
Hutchinson,  W.  L.,  273. 

Illinois    Experiment    Station,    129, 

136,  215,  216. 
In-breeding,  139. 
Indiana  Experiment  Station,  111. 
Insect  pests  of  oats,  25. 
Iowa  Experiment  Station,  111. 
Ipomcea  batatas,  425. 


572 


INDEX 


Johnson-grass  seed,  21. 

Kafir,    Black-hulled    White,    238, 

239. 
composition  of  grain  and  stover, 

232. 

description  and  uses,  239. 
harvesting,  240. 
Red,  234. 

soils  and  planting,  240. 
Kansas  A.  &  M.  College,  66. 
Kansas  Board  of  Agriculture,  205, 

247. 
Kansas  Experiment  Station,  20,  31, 

246. 

Kentucky  Experiment  Station,  546. 
Kilgore,  B.  W.,  67,  126,  273. 
Killebrew,  J.  B.,  546. 
Kimbrough,  J.  M.,  340. 
Knapp,  S.  A.,  221,  228,  230. 

Lady-bug,  beneficial,  25. 

Laphygma  frugiperda,  521. 

Legumes  a  cheap  source  of  nitro- 
gen, 154. 

Leidigh,  A.  H.,  246. 

Lime,  335. 
for  wheat,  45. 

Lissorhoptrus  simplex,  229. 

Litter,  disposal  of,  341. 

Lloyd,  F.  E.,  90. 

Louisiana  Crop  Pest  Commission, 
399. 

Louisiana  Experiment  Station,  120, 
157,  219,  230,  247,  294,  521, 
546. 

Louisiana,  productive   varieties   of 

corn  in,   120. 

productive  varieties  of  cotton  in, 
393. 

Lyon,  T.  L.,  31,  67,  111. 

Macaroni  wheat,  40. 
Mallow  family,  274. 
Malvaceae,  274. 
Manihot  utilissima,  457. 


Manure,    increase   in   cotton    from 

use  of,  325. 

Marismius  sacchari,  520. 
McBryde,  J.  B.,  270,  273,  340,  360. 
McDonnell,  C.  C.,  219,  230. 
McNess,  G.  T.,  546. 
McNider,  G.  M.,  360. 
McQuarrie,  C.  K.,  522. 
Mell,  P.  H.,  266. 
Mendel's    law    in    corn,    practical 

results  of,  145. 
Mercier,  W.  B.,  360. 
Metcalf,  H.,  230. 
Mexican  cotton  boll-worm,  392. 
Middle  burster,  346. 
Miller,  T.  S.,  376. 
Milo,  240. 
Milo  compared  with  Kafir,  241. 

composition  of  grain,  231. 
Milo  maize,  240. 

Minnesota  Experiment  Station,  205. 
Mississippi  Experiment  Station,  111, 

120,  273,  294. 
Mississippi,  productive  varieties  of 

corn  in,  120. 
productive  varieties  of  cotton  in, 

393. 

Molasses,  defined,  513. 
Montgomery  &  Lyon,  31,  67,  111. 
Moracece,  422. 
Morgan,  H.  A.,  456. 
Moore,  C.  C.,  462. 
Moorehouse,  L.  A.,  205. 
Myrick,  H.,  188,  546. 

Nebraska  Experiment  Station,  20, 
22,  67. 

Nelson,  R.  J.,  230. 

Nematode  worms,  474. 

Nesbit,  D.  M.,  456. 

Newman,  C.  L.,  247,  299,  483. 

Newman,  J.  S.,  246,  339,  456. 

Nicotiana  tabacum,  523. 

Nitrate  of  soda,  15,  48,  156,  327. 

Nitrogen,  a  rational  system  of  fertil- 
ization with,  329. 


INDEX 


573 


Nitrogen  (continued) 
cost  of,  328. 

need  of  cotton  soils  for,  328. 
sources  of,  327. 

North    Carolina,    Department    of 
Agriculture,  67,  77,   119,   120, 
126,  263,  266,  295,  340,  360. 
Experiment    Station,    188,    216, 

546. 
productive  varieties  of  corn  in, 

120. 
productive  varieties  of  cotton 

in,  394. 

Nitrogen,    effects    on    maturity   of 
cotton,  367. 

Oats,  Appier,  9. 
Bancroft,  9. 
Burt,  6,  9. 
change  of  seed,  21. 
composition,  4,  5. 
Culberson,  9. 
cultural  methods  for,  16. 
diseases  of,  23. 
draft  on  soil  fertility,  5. 
drilling  versus  broadcast  sowing, 

17. 

fertilizers  for,  13,  15. 
fungous  diseases  of,  23. 
grain,  4. 

harvesting  and  marketing,  26. 
heaving  of,  19. 
improvement  of,  12. 
in  rotation,  14. 
insect  pests  of,  25. 
inter-tillage  of,  22. 
laboratory  exercises,  29. 
leaves,  2. 
literature,  3. 
"  May,"  9. 

nitrate  of  soda  for,  15. 
open-furrow  method,  18. 
panicle  and  spikelet,  2. 
pasturing,  22. 
pollination  of,  2. 
preparation  of  land  for,  16. 


Oats  (continued) 

quantity  of  seed,  19. 

Red  Rust-proof,  6,  7. 

roots,  1. 

rotation  for,  14. 

rust  of,  23. 

size  of  seed,  20. 

smut,  23. 

soils  for,  13. 

stems,  1. 

teams  and  labor,  28. 

time  to  sow,  16. 

Turf  or  Grazing,  6,  11. 

types  of  Southern,  6. 

varieties  of,  6. 

weeds  in,  23. 

winter-killing  of,   19. 

with  crimson  clover,  27. 
Ohio  Experiment  Station,  20,   106, 

149. 
Oklahoma  Experiment  Station,  43, 

51,  58,  121. 
Oklahoma,   productive    varieties  of 

corn  in,  121. 
Ontario   Agricultural    College    and 

Experiment  Farms,  20. 
Orton,  W.  A.,  420. 
Oryza  sativa,  217. 
Ozonium,  414. 

Parker,  E.  C.,  205. 
Pasturing  oats,  23. 
Pasturing  wheat,  57. 
Patterson,  L.  C.,  273. 
Peanuts,  464. 

as  stock  food,  479. 
breeding,  471. 
composition  of,  466. 
hulls,  466. 
kernels,  466. 
meal,  466. 
nut,  466. 
cultivation,  471. 
distance  between  plants,  469. 
effects  on  pork  and  lard,  479. 
enemies,  482. 


574 


INDEX 


Peanuts  (continued) 

fertilizers,  467. 

harvesting,  482. 

in  rotation,  473. 

laboratory  exercises,  482. 

land-plaster  for,  467. 

leaf-spot,  482. 

liming  soil  for,  467. 

literature,  384. 

method  of  planting,  469. 

North  Carolina,  476. 

oil  from,  464,  478. 

plant,  description  of,  464. 

preparation  of  land  for,  468. 

preparation  of  seed,  470. 

soils,  464. 

Spanish,  476. 

time  of  planting,  471. 

uses  of,  476. 

varieties,  476. 

Virginia  Bunch,  476. 

Virginia  Runner,  476. 

yields,  481. 
Pepper-grass,  60. 

Phosphate,    effect   on   maturity  of 
cotton,  337. 

need  of  cotton  soils  for,  332. 

raw  or  ground  rock,  330. 
Phosphates,    effects      of      different 

forms  of,  33. 
Phosphoric  acid,  cost  of,  332. 

sources  of,  330,  331. 
Plant  breeding  a  specialty,  312. 
Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Bureau  of,  60, 

266,  299,  547. 
Planter,  hand,   169. 

check-row,  166. 
Plowing,  depth  of,  343. 

time  of,  159,  342. 
Plumb,  C.  S.,  188. 
Poe,  C.  H.,  360,  376,  387. 
Polish  wheat,  40. 
Pollen-tube,  course  of,  89. 
Potash,  effect  on  maturity  of  cot- 
ton, 338. 
Potash  fertilizers,  332. 


Potash  (continued) 

for  checking  cotton  rust,  333. 

need  for,  332. 

sources  of,  337. 
Poulard  wheat,  40. 
Price,  R.  H.,  455. 
Protoparce  Carolina,  544. 
Prussic  acid  in  cassava  roots,  458. 

Raw  phosphate  in  composts,  337. 

Red  cane,  520. 

Redding,  R.  J.,    145,  155,  205,  340, 

360. 

Red  May  wheat,  43. 
Red  rice,  228. 
Rhode  Island  Experiment  Station, 

444. 
Rice,  217. 

amount  of  seed,  221. 

birds,  229. 

bran,  composition  of,  219. 

composition  of,  219. 

distribution,  217. 

fertilizers  for,  221,  227. 

fungous  diseases,  229. 

harvesting,  227. 

Honduras,  220. 

hulls,  composition  of,    219. 

implements  and  labor,  221. 

insect  enemies  of,  229. 

irrigation,  223. 

Japan,  220. 

laboratory  exercises,  229. 

literature,  230. 

polish,  composition  of,  219. 

preparation  of  land  for,  221. 

production  of,  217. 

rust,  229. 

smut,  229. 

soils,  221. 

sowing,  221. 

straw,  composition  of,  219. 

upland,  225. 

varieties,  220. 

water  weevil,  229. 

weeds  in,  228. 


INDEX 


675 


Rice  (continued) 

weevil,  211. 

yield  of,  228. 
Ridgway,  C.  S.,  89. 
Roberts,  H.  F.,  246. 
Robinson,  T.  A.,  376. 
Root-knot,  413. 
Roper,  W.  N.,  483. 
Rose,  R.  E.,  522. 
Ross,  B.  B.,  270,  271,  273,  522. 
Rotation  for  oats,  14. 

for  wheat,  45,  46. 
Rust  of  oats,  23. 
Rusts  of  wheat,  60. 
Rye  and  barley,  68. 

and  crimson  clover,  72. 

clasps  on  leaf,  69. 

climate  for,  70. 

description,  68. 

enemies,  73. 

ergot  in,  73. 

fertilizers  for,  70. 

heads  of,  69. 

laboratory  exercises,  77. 

literature,  77. 

pollination  in,  70. 

preparation  and  sowing,  71. 

soils  for,  70. 

uses,  68.  ' 

utilization,  72. 

varieties,  70. 

Saccharum  officinarum,  484. 
Sargent,  F.  L.,  77,  97. 
Scherffius,  W.  H.,  547. 
Schulte,  J.  I.,  205,  546. 
Scofield,  C.  S.,  67. 
Score-card  for  corn,  101. 

for  cotton  plant,  312. 

for  oats,  31. 

for  wheat,  66. 
Seed,  change  of,  57. 
Seeding  machines,  55. 
Seed  wheat,  best  size  of,  56. 
Self-pollination  in  corn,  139. 
Shamel.  A.D.,  547. 


Shiver,  F.  S.,  373. 
Shocker  for  corn,  198. 
Shocking  horse,  194. 
Shoesmith,  V.  M.,  111. 
Shredder,  193,  200. 
Silage,  99. 
Silo,  99. 
Sirup,  denned,  513. 

making,  513. 
Smith,  L.  H.,  136,  149. 
Smut,  of  barley,  77. 

loose,  of  wheat,  61. 

of  corn,  214. 

of  oats,  23. 

of  wheat,  61. 
Soils,  acid,  for  corn,  151. 

for  oats,  13. 

U.  S.  Bureau  of,  157,  340,  346. 
Sorghums,  231. 

laboratory  exercises,  245. 

literature,  47. 
Sorghum  vulgar e,  231. 

Amber,  234,  235,  236. 

composition  of,  232. 

crossing,  233. 

cultivation,  237. 

effects  on  soil,  232. 

enemies,  233. 

fertilizer  for,  236. 

general  description,  231. 

groups  of,  231. 

harvesting,  237. 

kernel  smut,  233. 

midge,  233. 

Orange  varieties,  235,  236. 

planting,  237. 

preparation  for,  237. 

Red  Top  or  Sumac,  235. 

saccharine,  234. 

smut,  234. 

soils  for,  236. 

sweet,  composition  of  seed 
and  of  cured  plant,  232. 

sweet,  description  and  use,  234 

varieties,  235. 

where  grown,  235. 


576 


INDEX 


Soule,  A.  M.,  67,  149,  188. 

South  Carolina,  Clemson    College, 

376. 

South  Carolina  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, 121,  187,  219,  230,  246, 
270,  295,  299,  333,  340,  359, 
406. 

South  Carolina,  productive  varieties 
of  corn  in,  121. 

productive  varieties  of  cotton  in, 

394. 

Spachelotheca  sorghi,  233. 
Sphceronema  fimbriatum,  454. 
Stalk  cutter,  158. 
Statistics,  U.  S.  Bureau  of,  387. 
Stevens,  F.  L.,  215,  420. 
Stockbridge,  H.  E.,  462,  522. 
Stubbs,  W.  C.,  230,  521. 
Sturtevant,  E.  L.,  92,  117,  126. 
Subsoiling,  163,  343. 
Suckers  on  corn,  83.  % 

Sugar,  consumption  of,  519. 

production  of,  518. 
Sugar-cane,  484. 

bedding,  510. 

borer,  519. 

buds,  489. 

burning  refuse,  502. 

by-products,  513. 

composition,  492. 

cowpeas  as  fertilizer  for,  505. 

cultivation,  501. 
in  Cuba,  503. 

cultural  methods,  498. 

digging,  "seed  cane,"  510. 

diseases,  520. 

duration  of,  484. 

extraction  of  juice,  492. 

fertilizer  experiments,  496. 

fertilizers,  495. 

harvesting,  507. 
in  Louisiana,  511. 

history,  517. 

improvement  of,  491. 

insect  enemies,  519. 

Japanese,  507. 


Sugar-cane  (continued) 

laboratory  exercises,  521. 

leaf-hopper,  520. 

leaves,  485. 

legumes  as  fertilizer,  497. 

literature,  521. 

on  uplands,  489. 

plant  food  removed  by,  492. 

planting  in  Louisiana,  50. 

planting  in  Pine  Belt,  500. 

preparation  for,  498. 

propagation,    489,  498. 
from  seed,  490. 

proportion  of  parts,  492. 

roots,  485. 

rotation  for,  503*. 

sirup,  effects  of  canning,   516. 

sirup-making,  chemicals  in,  517. 

sirup-making,  equipment  for,  514. 

sirup,    prevention    of     sugaring, 
510. 

soils,  497. 

source  of  nitrogen  in,  496. 

source  of  potash  for,  498. 

Southern  grass-worm,  520. 

stem,  486. 

stripper,  509. 

stripping  and  cutting,  507. 

structure,  487. 

tillage,  501. 

varieties,  505. 

yields,  512. 
"  Sugar  millet,"  231. 
Sweet-potato,  425. 

banking,  450. 

bedding,  438. 

black-rot,  454. 

classification  of  varieties,  432. 

conditions  in  storing,  449. 

cultivation,  446. 

cultural  methods,  438. 

desirable  qualities,  432. 

distance  between  plants,  445. 

draft  on  soil  fertility,  430. 

drawing  the  slips,  442. 
dry-rot,  455. 


INDEX 


577 


Sweet-potato  (continued) 
effect  on  land,  437.    . 
fertilizers,  435. 
fire  hot-beds,  439. 
flowers  and  seeds,  427. 
fungous  diseases,  454. 
harvesting,  447. 
high  and  low  beds  for,  446. 
humus  for,  435. 
insects,  452. 
kiln  drying,  450. 
kind  and  quantity  to  bed,  440. 
laboratory  exercises,  455. 
literature,  455. 
manure  bed  for,  438. 
market  demands,  431. 
methods  of  harvesting,  448. 
place  in  the  rotation,  436. 
preparation  of  land  for,  445. 
propagation  of,  438. 
pruning  the  vines,  447. 
root-borer,  452. 
root-rot,  414. 
slips,  441. 
soft-rot,  455. 
soils,  434. 

starch  and  alcohol  from,  429. 
storage  house,  451,  452. 
time  to  dig,  447. 
time  of  transplanting,  444. 
transplanting,  442. 
transplanting  machines,  443. 
value  as  food,  428. 
varieties,  431. 
vine  cuttings  of,  445. 
yields,  449. 

Tennessee  Experiment  Station,  39, 

67,  121,  270. 
Tennessee,  productive  varieties  of 

corn  in,  121. 
Teosinte,  78. 
Texas    Experiment    Station,     122, 

246,  295,  314. 
Texas,  productive  varieties  of  corn 

in,  122. 

2p 


Throw-board,  190,  191. 
Tillage  of  wheat,  57. 
Tilletia  horrida,  229. 
Tobacco,  523. 

breeding,  527. 

composition,  524. 

cultivation,  533. 

cultural  methods,  529. 

curing,  540,  542. 
air,  541. 
fire,  540. 
flue,  541. 
cigar,  541. 

cut-worms,  544. 

description,  523. 

diseases,  544. 

distance  for,  532. 

distribution,  523. 

fertilizer  formulas,  526. 

fertilizers,  525. 

harvesting,  538. 

indications  of  maturity,  538. 

insects,  544. 

laboratory  exercises,  545. 

literature,  546. 

nematodes,  544. 

nitrogen  for,  525. 

preparation  for,  532. 

rotations  for,  537. 

seed-bed,  529. 

seed-blower,  529. 

seed,  saving,  527. 

setting,  532. 

shade,  530,  536. 

soils,  524. 

sowing,  531. 

stripping,  543. 

suckering,  535. 

topping,  533. 

transplanting  machine,  534. 

two  methods  of  harvesting,  539, 

types  and  varieties,  526. 

wire-worm,  545. 

worm,  Southern,  544,  545. 

yields  and  prices,  543. 
Tompkins,  A.  D.,  376. 


5T8 


INDEX 


Toxoptera  graminum,  25. 
Tracy,  S.  M.,  462. 
Tubercles,  distinguished  from  root- 
knot,  415. 

Turn-plow,  in  cultivating  corn,  174. 
Tyler,  F.  K.,  299. 

Umberger,  H.  J.  C.,  246. 

Upland  rice,  226. 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
130,  149,  205,  216,  221,  228, 
230,  246,  247,  281,  314,  462, 
482,  522,  546,  547. 

Ustilago  maydis,  214. 

Vanatter,  P.  O.,  67,  149,  188. 

Varieties  of  corn,  yields  of,  118. 

Vegetable  Physiology  and  Pathol- 
ogy, TJ  S.  Division  of,  67. 

Vetch,  hairy..  12, 

Vincenheller,  W.  G.,  230. 

Virginia  Experiment  Station,  122, 
130,  149,  188,  548. 

Virginia,  productive  varieties  of 
corn  in,  122. 

Waite,  M.  B.,  456. 
Warburton,  C.  W.,  240,  247. 
Watt,  G.,  266,  281. 
Webber,  H.  J.,  149,  266,  314. 
Weeder,   171,  172. 

use  in  cultivating  cotton,  350. 
Weeds  in  oats,  23. 

in  rice,  228. 

in  wheat,  59. 
Weevils  in  corn,  211. 
Wheat,  Blue  Stem,  41,  42 

change  of  seed,  57. 

climate  for,  53. 

composition,  39. 

cultural  methods,  51. 

diseases,  60. 

drilling  versus  broadcast   sowing, 
54. 

enemies,  59. 

fertilization  of,  47 


Wheat  (continued) 

Fulcaster,  42,  43. 

grain,  37. 

hay,  when  to  cut,  59. 

Hessian  fly,  62. 

improvement  of  varieties,  44. 

insect  pests  of,  62. 

laboratory  exercises,  64. 

large    versus  medium  and   small 
grains,  56. 

leaves,  34. 

lime  for,  45. 

literature,  67. 

means  of  distinguishing  varieties, 
43. 

most  productive  varieties,  43. 

pasturing,  57. 

plant  food  removed  by,  47. 

plant-louse,  63. 

pollination,  34. 

preparation  of  land,  51. 

prices,  59. 

Purple  Straw,  41,  42. 

qualities  desired  in,  44. 

quantity  of  seed,  55. 

Red  May,  43. 

roots,  32. 

rotation  for,  45,  46. 

rust,  60. 

score-card  for,  66. 

size  of  grain,  38.    • 

smut,  61. 

soils  for,  45. 

species  and  subspecies,  40. 

spikelets,  35. 

standards  for,  66. 

stems,  33. 

stinking  smut,  61. 

structure  and  composition,  33 

tillage,  57. 

time  to  harvest,  58. 

time  to  sow,  52. 

varieties,  40. 

with  crimson  clover,  27. 

yields,  59. 
White,  H.  C.,  340. 


INDEX 


579 


Whitney,    Milton,  157,  547,  548. 

Wight,  J.  B.,  522. 

Wild  onion,  60. 

Wiley,  H.  W.,  462,  522. 

Williams,  C.  B.,   126,  188,  266,  338, 

340. 
Williams,  C.  G.,  149. 


Williamson  method  of  corn  culture, 

18. 

Winter-killing,  prevention  of,  19. 
Wisconsin  Station,  77. 

Zea  mays,  78. 
Zintheo,  C.  J.,  205. 


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